📚 GCSE Edexcel Philosophy: Essential Terminology Quick Revision Guide | Edexcel 哲学核心术语速记指南
Welcome to your essential glossary for Year 10 Edexcel Philosophy. This guide groups key terms by topic, provides succinct definitions, and offers memorable tips to help you master the vocabulary needed for exam success. Whether you are tackling arguments for God’s existence, ethical theories, or the mind-body problem, a solid command of terminology is your foundation for top marks.
欢迎使用 Year 10 Edexcel 哲学核心术语表。本指南将关键术语按主题分组，提供简洁定义与记忆技巧，助你攻克考试必备词汇。不论你面对的是上帝存在的论证、伦理学理论，还是心身问题，牢固的术语基础都是夺取高分的关键。
1. Arguments for God’s Existence | 上帝存在的论证
The design argument (teleological argument) claims that the universe displays order, complexity, and purpose, which point towards an intelligent designer (God).
设计论证（目的论论证）认为宇宙展现出秩序、复杂性和目的，这些指向一位智慧的设计者（上帝）。
William Paley’s watchmaker analogy compares a watch, which implies a watchmaker, to the universe, implying a Universe-maker.
威廉·佩利的钟表匠类比：找到一块表便能推出钟表匠的存在；同理，宇宙意味着宇宙创造者的存在。
The cosmological argument, associated with Aquinas, asserts that everything has a cause, so there must be a first cause or uncaused cause (God) to avoid infinite regress.
宇宙论论证（阿奎那）主张万物皆有原因，因此必有一条第一因或非受动的第一推动者（上帝），以免陷入无穷回溯。
Aquinas’ Five Ways include arguments from motion, causation, contingency, degrees of perfection, and teleology (design).
阿奎那的五路论证包含来自运动、因果关系、偶然性、完美程度和目的性（设计）的推理。
The argument from contingency states that everything in the world is contingent (could not exist), so there must be a necessary being that cannot not exist – God.
偶然性论证指出世间万物都是偶然的（可能不存在），所以必须有一个不可能不存在的必然存在者——上帝。
2. The Nature of God | 上帝的本性
Omnipotent means all-powerful; God can do anything that is logically possible.
全能（Omnipotent）指无所不能；上帝能做任何逻辑上可能的事。
Omniscient means all-knowing; God knows everything past, present, and future, including our choices.
全知（Omniscient）指无所不知；上帝知晓过去、现在与未来的一切，包括我们的选择。
Omnibenevolent means all-loving or infinitely good; God’s nature is to will the highest good for creation.
全善（Omnibenevolent）指无限慈爱与至善；上帝的本性就是意愿造物的最大福祉。
Transcendence means God exists beyond space, time, and the material universe; He is not limited by the physical world.
超越性（Transcendence）意味着上帝存在于空间、时间和物质宇宙之外，不受物质世界的限制。
Immanence means God is present and active within the world and human experience, often associated with a personal God.
内在性（Immanence）指上帝临在于世界和人类经验之中，常常与人格的上帝相联系。
An eternal God exists outside time and sees all of history at once; a everlasting God exists within time without end.
永恒的（eternal）上帝在时间之外，一次性俯瞰整个历史；永存的（everlasting）上帝在时间之中但没有终结。
3. The Problem of Evil | 恶的问题
Moral evil is suffering caused by human free will, such as murder, theft, or cruelty.
道德恶是由人类自由意志造成的苦难，例如谋杀、偷盗或残忍行为。
Natural evil is suffering caused by the natural world, such as earthquakes, disease, or floods, not directly caused by human actions.
自然恶是由自然界造成的苦难，如地震、疾病或洪水，并非人类行为直接引起的。
The inconsistent triad, formulated by J. L. Mackie, argues that an omnipotent, omnibenevolent God cannot coexist with evil; at least one attribute must be false.
不一致三联论（J. L. 麦基提出）认为全能、全善的上帝与恶的存在无法并存；至少有一项属性不能成立。
The free will defence asserts that God allows evil because a world with morally significant free will is a greater good than a world of robots.
自由意志辩护主张上帝允许恶的存在，因为拥有重大道德自由的世界比一个全是机器人的世界更美好。
A theodicy is an attempt to justify God’s goodness despite the presence of evil. Two classic theodicies are those of Augustine and Irenaeus (developed by John Hick).
神正论是尝试在恶存在的前提下为上帝的良善辩护。两种经典神正论是奥古斯丁式和爱任纽式（由约翰·希克发展）。
Augustine’s theodicy argues evil is not created by God; it is a privation of good, resulting from the misuse of free will by angels and humans. All suffering traces back to the Fall.
奥古斯丁神正论主张恶非上帝所造，而是善的匮乏，源于天使和人类对自由意志的滥用；一切苦难都上溯至原罪。
Irenaeus’ soul-making theodicy sees the world as a place where humans develop virtues through facing and overcoming evil, ultimately growing into the likeness of God.
爱任纽的灵魂塑造神正论将世界视为人类通过面对并战胜恶来发展美德、最终成为上帝样式的地方。
4. Normative Ethical Theories | 规范伦理学理论
Utilitarianism is a teleological, consequentialist theory that judges actions by their outcome: the greatest happiness for the greatest number.
功利主义是一种目的论、结果论的伦理理论，以结果评判行为：追求最大多数人的最大幸福。
Jeremy Bentham’s act utilitarianism uses the hedonic calculus to measure pleasure by intensity, duration, certainty, proximity, fecundity, purity, and extent.
杰里米·边沁的行为功利主义运用快乐计算法，依据强度、持续时间、确定性、远近、丰产性、纯度和范围来衡量快乐。
John Stuart Mill’s rule utilitarianism distinguishes higher pleasures (intellectual) from lower pleasures (bodily), arguing that ‘it is better to be a human dissatisfied than a pig satisfied’.
约翰·斯图尔特·密尔的规则功利主义区分高级快乐（智识）与低级快乐（身体），主张“做不满足的人胜于做满足的猪”。
Deontology (Kantian ethics) is an absolutist, duty-based theory. An action is right if it conforms to a universal moral law, not because of its consequences.
义务论（康德伦理学）是一种绝对主义的、基于责任的伦理。一个行为正确与否取决于它是否符合普遍的道德律，而非其后果。
Kant’s categorical imperative commands us to act only according to maxims that we could will to become universal laws, and to treat humanity never merely as a means.
康德的绝对命令要求我们只按照你同时愿意它成为一条普遍法则的准则去行动，并且永远不把人仅仅当作手段。
Natural Law ethics (Aquinas) holds that humans can discover God’s moral law through reason by observing nature and the purpose (telos) of human life, guided by the primary precepts.
自然法伦理学（阿奎那）认为人可以通过理性观察自然和人生的目的（telos），遵循首要诫命，来发现上帝的道德律。
Situation ethics (Joseph Fletcher) has a single absolute norm: agape love. Moral decisions are made according to what best serves love in the specific situation.
境遇伦理学（约瑟夫·弗莱彻）只有一条绝对规范：圣爱（agape）。道德决策要看在具体情境下什么最能体现爱。
5. Meta-ethics | 元伦理学
Moral realism claims that moral facts exist objectively and independently of human opinion. Moral anti-realism denies this.
道德实在论声称道德事实客观存在，独立于人类意见。道德反实在论则否认这一点。
Cognitivism holds that moral statements are truth-apt, meaning they can be true or false. ‘Murder is wrong’ expresses a belief that can be verified.
认知主义认为道德陈述具有真值，即它们可以为真或为假。“谋杀是错的”表达了一个可被证实的信念。
Non-cognitivism claims that moral statements do not make truth claims; they express emotions (emotivism) or prescriptions. ‘Murder is wrong’ is equivalent to ‘Boo to murder!’.
非认知主义主张道德陈述不表达真值判断；它们表达情感（情绪主义）或指令。“谋杀是错的”相当于“谋杀，呸！”。
The naturalistic fallacy, identified by G. E. Moore, is the mistake of trying to define ‘good’ in natural terms. Moore argued good is a simple, unanalysable quality.
自然主义谬误（G. E. 摩尔提出）是指试图用自然属性来定义“善”的错误。摩尔认为“善”是一个单纯、不可分解的性质。
The is-ought problem (Hume) warns against deriving moral conclusions directly from factual premises. We cannot logically move from a statement about what is to a statement about what ought to be.
休谟的“是-应当问题”警告不能从事实前提直接推出道德结论。我们不能从“是什么”逻辑地推出“应该是什么”。
Moral absolutism claims some actions are always right or wrong regardless of culture or situation. Moral relativism claims morality is dependent on culture, time, or individual perspective.
道德绝对主义认为某些行为永远是对的或错的，不因文化或情境而改变。道德相对主义认为道德取决于文化、时代或个人视角。
6. Free Will and Determinism | 自由意志与决定论
Free will is the ability to make choices that are genuinely open and for which we can be held morally responsible.
自由意志是指能做出真正开放的选择并为之承担道德责任的能力。
Determinism claims that every event, including human actions, is causally determined by prior states of the world. Hard determinism states this is incompatible with free will.
决定论声称所有事件，包括人类行为，都由先前的世界状态因果地决定。强决定论认为这与自由意志不相容。
Compatibilism (soft determinism) argues that free will and determinism are compatible. We are free as long as we act on our own desires without external coercion.
相容论（温和决定论）主张自由意志与决定论可以相容。只要按照自己的欲望行事且不被外力强迫，我们就是自由的。
Libertarianism (in philosophy) asserts genuine free will exists and rejects determinism. Some libertarians propose agent-causation where the self is an uncaused cause.
自由意志论（哲学上的）肯定真正的自由意志存在，否认决定论。一些自由意志论者提出行为者因果性，即自我是非受动的原因。
Predestination is a theological determinism, especially in some forms of Christianity and Islam, where God has already determined who will be saved.
预定论是一种神学决定论，尤见于某些基督教和伊斯兰教流派，主张上帝已经预定了哪些人将得救。
Moral responsibility is the status of deserving praise or blame for an action. Without free will, some argue moral responsibility is an illusion.
道德责任是指因某个行为而应受赞扬或责备的地位。若无自由意志，有人认为道德责任只是幻觉。
7. Mind and Body | 心身问题
Dualism claims the mind and body are two distinct substances. Substance dualism (Descartes) argues the mind is a non-physical, thinking substance (res cogitans) and the body is a physical, extended substance (res extensa).
二元论声称心灵与身体是两种不同的实体。实体二元论（笛卡尔）认为心灵是非物质的思维实体，身体是物质的广延实体。
Materialism (physicalism) holds that the mind is not a separate substance; mental states are identical to brain states (identity theory) or functions of the brain.
唯物主义（物理主义）认为心灵并非独立实体；心理状态等同于大脑状态（同一论）或大脑的功能。
Qualia are the subjective, qualitative aspects of experience, such as the redness of red or the taste of chocolate. They pose a challenge to physicalism.
感受质是经验的主观、质性方面，例如红色的“红”感或巧克力的味道。它们对物理主义构成挑战。
Property dualism accepts that the brain is physical but argues mental properties are non-physical and not reducible to physical properties.
属性二元论接受大脑是物理的，但主张心理属性是非物理的且不能还原为物理属性。
Epiphenomenalism states that physical events cause mental events, but mental events cannot cause physical events. Consciousness is a by-product of brain activity.
副现象论认为物理事件引发心理事件，但心理事件无法引发物理事件。意识是大脑活动的副产品。
The mind-body problem asks: how can a non-physical mind interact with a physical body? Descartes’ answer (via the pineal gland) is widely criticised.
心身问题问的是：非物质的心灵如何与物质的身体相互作用？笛卡尔的答案（通过松果腺）广受批评。
The ‘Mary’s room’ thought experiment challenges physicalism: Mary, a neuroscientist who knows all physical facts about colour, learns something new when she actually sees red for the first time.
“玛丽房间”思想实验挑战物理主义：神经科学家玛丽知道关于颜色的所有物理事实，但当她第一次实际看见红色时，她学到了新东西。
8. Epistemology Basics | 认识论基础
A priori knowledge is knowledge justified independently of experience, such as ‘2 + 2 = 4’. A posteriori knowledge depends on experience, such as ‘London is the capital of the UK’.
先天知识是不依赖于经验而获得辩护的知识，如“2 + 2 = 4”。后天知识依赖于经验，如“伦敦是英国首都”。
An analytic statement is true solely by virtue of the meaning of the words, e.g. ‘All bachelors are unmarried men’. A synthetic statement adds new information not contained in the definitions alone.
分析陈述仅凭词语意义即为真，如“所有单身汉都是未婚男性”。综合陈述则增添了定义之外的新信息。
Rationalism claims that reason is the primary source of knowledge and that some ideas are innate. Plato and Descartes are key rationalists.
理性主义主张理性是知识的主要来源，且某些观念是天赋的。柏拉图和笛卡尔是主要的理性主义者。
Empiricism claims that sense experience is the primary source of knowledge and the mind begins as a blank slate (tabula rasa). Aristotle, Locke, and Hume are representative empiricists.
经验主义主张感官经验是知识的主要来源，心灵起初是一块白板（tabula rasa）。亚里士多德、洛克和休谟是代表性经验主义者。
Innate ideas are concepts present in the mind from birth, not derived from experience, such as Plato’s Forms or Descartes’ idea of God.
天赋观念是指与生俱来、非源于经验的概念，如柏拉图的理型或笛卡尔的上帝观念。
A tabula rasa (blank slate) is the empiricist claim that there are no innate ideas; the mind is entirely filled by experience and learning.
白板说（tabula rasa）是经验主义的主张：没有天赋观念；心灵完全由经验和学习填充。
9. Key Philosophers in a Nutshell | 关键哲学家速览
Plato (Rationalist): Developed the Theory of Forms, arguing that the physical world is a shadow of a higher, non-material realm of perfect concepts like Justice and Beauty. Knowledge is recollection of innate truths.
柏拉图（理性主义者）：提出理型论，认为物质世界只是完美概念（如正义、美）所在的更高、非物质领域的影子。知识是对天赋真理的回忆。
Aristotle (Empiricist): Rejected Plato’s Forms, emphasising observation and categorisation of the natural world. For Aristotle, knowledge begins with sense experience and leads to understanding of causes (the four causes).
亚里士多德（经验主义者）：拒绝柏拉图的理型论，强调对自然世界的观察与分类。他认为知识始于感官经验，进而理解原因（四因说）。
René Descartes (Rationalist, Dualist): Known for ‘I think, therefore I am’ (Cogito). Sought a foundation for knowledge in clear and distinct ideas and argued mind and body are separate substances.
勒内·笛卡尔（理性主义者、二元论者）：以“我思故我在”闻名。在清晰明确的概念中寻找知识基础，论证心灵与身体是分离的实体。
David Hume (Empiricist, Sceptic): Claimed all ideas come from impressions. Challenged the cosmological argument, criticised induction, and identified the is-ought gap in ethics.
大卫·休谟（经验主义者、怀疑论者）：主张一切观念来自印象。质疑宇宙论论证，批判归纳法，并识别出伦理学中的“是-应当”鸿沟。
Immanuel Kant (Rationalist/Empiricist synthesis): Argued the mind actively structures experience through categories. Developed the categorical imperative as a deontological ethical principle.
伊曼努尔·康德（理性主义与经验主义综合者）：主张心灵通过范畴主动建构经验。发展了作为义务论伦理原则的绝对命令。
Jeremy Bentham (Utilitarian): Proposed act utilitarianism with the hedonic calculus, insisting that all pleasures are equal in quality. Focused on quantity of happiness.
杰里米·边沁（功利主义者）：提出包含快乐计算法的行为功利主义，坚持所有快乐在质上相等，聚焦于幸福的数量。
John Stuart Mill (Utilitarian): Refined Bentham’s view with rule utilitarianism and the distinction between higher and lower pleasures, advocating for the harm principle in liberty.
约翰·斯图尔特·密尔（功利主义者）：用规则功利主义和高级/低级快乐的区分改良了边沁的观点，并倡导航害原则。
10. Exam Command Words for Edexcel Philosophy | Edexcel 哲学考试指令词
‘Analyse’ requires you to break down an argument or concept into its component parts and examine how they relate, often considering strengths and weaknesses.
‘Analyse’（分析）要求你将一个论证或概念分解为组成部分，考察它们之间的关系，通常要审视其优点与弱点。
‘Evaluate’ asks you to make a reasoned judgement about the value or success of an argument, reaching a supported conclusion. Use phrases like ‘This is strong because…’.
‘Evaluate’（评价）要求你对某一论证的价值或成功与否作出合理判断，并得出有据支持的结论。使用“这很有力，因为…”等表述。
‘Discuss’ invites you to present different viewpoints on a topic, typically including both sides of a debate, before offering a conclusion. Show that you can explore an issue from multiple angles.
‘Discuss’（讨论）邀请你呈现关于某个主题的不同观点，通常包含辩论双方，再给出结论。展现你能从多角度探讨问题。
‘Outline’ means give a brief summary of the main points without detailed evaluation. Be clear, concise, and stick to the key features.
‘Outline’（概述）意味着简要总结要点，无需详细评价。做到清晰、简洁，抓住关键特征。
‘Compare’ requires you to identify similarities and differences between two or more positions, arguments, or concepts. Use linking words like ‘whereas’ or ‘similarly’.
‘Compare’（比较）要求你指出两种或多种立场、论证或概念之间的相似与差异。使用“而”、“同样”等连接词。
Remember to embed key terminology naturally in your answers. A well-chosen technical term used correctly can demonstrate sophisticated understanding and raise your marks in all assessment objectives.
记住在答案中自然地嵌入关键术语。恰当准确地使用一个专门术语能展示精深的理解，并在所有评估目标中提高你的分数。
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