📚 Formula & Theorem Quick Reference Handbook for Edexcel Year 11 Biology | Edexcel 11年级生物公式定理速查手册
This concise handbook summarises the key formulas, equations, and essential theorems that every Edexcel Year 11 Biology student must know. Use it for quick revision before exams to ensure you can apply calculations accurately across topics including microscopy, enzymes, photosynthesis, respiration, energy transfer, sampling, and genetics.
这本速查手册总结了Edexcel 11年级生物学生必须掌握的核心公式、方程和重要定理。考前用它快速复习，确保你能在显微镜、酶、光合作用、呼吸作用、能量传递、采样和遗传学等各个主题中准确运用计算。
1. Microscopy & Magnification Formula | 显微镜与放大倍率公式
The magnification, image size, and actual size of a specimen are linked by a formula. Always convert all measurements to the same unit (usually micrometres, µm) before calculating.
标本的放大倍率、图像大小和实际大小由一个公式关联。计算前务必把所有测量值换算成相同单位（通常是微米，µm）。
Magnification = Image size ÷ Actual size
放大倍率 = 图像大小 ÷ 实际大小
To find actual size, rearrange: Actual size = Image size ÷ Magnification. Remember: 1 mm = 1000 µm.
求实际大小可变形为：实际大小 = 图像大小 ÷ 放大倍率。记住：1 毫米 = 1000 微米。
2. Surface Area to Volume Ratio | 表面积与体积比
The surface area to volume ratio (SA:V) explains why cells and organisms need specialised exchange surfaces. As an object increases in size, its volume grows faster than its surface area, so the SA:V decreases.
表面积与体积比（SA:V）解释了为什么细胞和生物体需要特化的交换表面。物体增大时，体积的增长快于表面积，因此 SA:V 下降。
Calculate for a cube: Surface Area = 6 × side², Volume = side³, then SA:V = Surface Area ÷ Volume. A high SA:V favours efficient diffusion.
计算立方体时：表面积 = 6 × 边长²，体积 = 边长³，然后 SA:V = 表面积 ÷ 体积。高 SA:V 有利于高效扩散。
3. Diffusion, Osmosis & Active Transport Principles | 扩散、渗透与主动运输原理
Diffusion is the net movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration down a concentration gradient, a passive process requiring no energy.
扩散是粒子从高浓度区域向低浓度区域的净运动，沿浓度梯度进行，属于被动过程，不需要能量。
Osmosis is the net movement of water molecules through a partially permeable membrane from a dilute solution (high water potential) to a more concentrated solution (low water potential).
渗透是水分子通过部分透性膜从稀溶液（高水势）向较浓溶液（低水势）的净运动。
Active transport moves substances against the concentration gradient, from low to high concentration, using energy from ATP and carrier proteins.
主动运输逆浓度梯度移动物质，从低浓度到高浓度，需借助ATP提供的能量和载体蛋白。
4. Enzyme Activity & Rate Calculations | 酶活性与速率计算
The rate of an enzyme-catalysed reaction can be calculated by measuring how quickly a substrate disappears or a product appears. Common units include g/s, cm³/s, or arbitrary units per second.
酶催化反应的速率可通过测量底物消耗或产物生成的速度来计算。常用单位有克/秒、厘米³/秒或任意单位/秒。
Rate = Change in amount of product (or substrate) ÷ Time taken
速率 = 产物（或底物）的变化量 ÷ 所用时间
For reactions like starch breakdown, rate can also be expressed as: Rate (s⁻¹) = 1 ÷ time taken for the reaction to reach a standard end-point.
对于淀粉分解等反应，速率也可表示为：速率（s⁻¹）= 1 ÷ 反应达到标准终点所需的时间。
5. Photosynthesis Equation & Rate Measurement | 光合作用方程与速率测量
Photosynthesis uses light energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen. The balanced symbol equation must be memorised.
光合作用利用光能将二氧化碳和水转化为葡萄糖和氧气。必须记住配平的化学方程式。
6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂
6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂
Photosynthesis rate can be estimated by measuring oxygen bubble production per minute in pondweed (e.g. Elodea) or by monitoring pH change due to CO₂ uptake. Rate = number of bubbles or volume of O₂ / time.
光合作用速率可通过测量水草（如伊乐藻）每分钟产生的氧气泡数或通过监测CO₂吸收引起的pH变化来估算。速率 = 气泡数或氧气体积 / 时间。
6. Respiration Equations & Energy Release | 呼吸作用方程与能量释放
Aerobic respiration releases a large amount of energy by fully oxidising glucose. The symbol equation is the reverse of photosynthesis but represents a different metabolic pathway.
有氧呼吸通过完全氧化葡萄糖释放大量能量。符号方程式是光合作用的逆反应，但代表了不同的代谢途径。
C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O (+ lots of energy as ATP)
C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O (+ 大量以ATP形式存在的能量)
Anaerobic respiration in animals converts glucose into lactic acid and releases a small amount of energy. In yeast, it produces ethanol and carbon dioxide.
动物体内的无氧呼吸将葡萄糖转化为乳酸并释放少量能量。在酵母中，它产生乙醇和二氧化碳。
Animals: C₆H₁₂O₆ → 2C₃H₆O₃ (+ some energy)
动物：C₆H₁₂O₆ → 2C₃H₆O₃（+ 少量能量）
Yeast: C₆H₁₂O₆ → 2C₂H₅OH + 2CO₂ (+ some energy)
酵母：C₆H₁₂O₆ → 2C₂H₅OH + 2CO₂（+ 少量能量）
The respiratory quotient (RQ) = CO₂ produced ÷ O₂ consumed. RQ values indicate which substrate is being respired (carbohydrate RQ ≈ 1.0).
呼吸商（RQ）= 产生CO₂的体积 ÷ 消耗O₂的体积。RQ值可指示呼吸底物类型（碳水化合物的RQ约为1.0）。
7. Energy Transfer Efficiency in Food Chains | 食物链中的能量传递效率
Energy is lost at each trophic level largely through respiration, movement, undigested materials, and heat. The efficiency of energy transfer can be calculated to understand ecosystem productivity.
能量在每一营养级都会散失，主要通过呼吸作用、运动、未消化的物质和热量。计算能量传递效率有助于理解生态系统的生产力。
Efficiency (%) = (Energy in higher trophic level ÷ Energy in lower trophic level) × 100
效率（%）=（较高营养级的能量 ÷ 较低营养级的能量）× 100
Alternatively, use biomass: Efficiency (%) = (Biomass in higher level ÷ Biomass in lower level) × 100. Typical transfers are around 10%.
也可用生物量计算：效率（%）=（较高营养级的生物量 ÷ 较低营养级的生物量）× 100。典型传递效率约为10%。
8. Biomass Calculations & Pyramids | 生物量计算与金字塔
Biomass is the total dry mass of living material in an organism or trophic level, usually measured in g/m² for land or g/m³ for aquatic habitats. To find dry mass, heat a sample until constant weight is reached, then scale up.
生物量是生物体或营养级中生命物质的总干重，陆地常用g/m²，水生环境用g/m³。测定干重时，需加热样品直至恒重，再按比例放大。
Total biomass = Dry mass per individual × Number of individuals
总生物量 = 每个个体的干重 × 个体数量
When constructing a pyramid of biomass, each bar is drawn to scale using these calculated values. The pyramid is almost always upright, reflecting the decrease in biomass at higher trophic levels.
绘制生物量金字塔时，每一条块按比例依据计算值绘制。金字塔几乎总是正立的，反映营养级越高生物量越少。
9. Sampling Techniques & Population Estimation | 采样技术与种群估算
Estimating population size is a key skill. Two common methods are used: quadrats for stationary organisms and capture-mark-recapture for mobile animals.
估算种群大小是一项关键技能。常用两种方法：样方法用于静止生物，标记重捕法用于移动动物。
For quadrat sampling: Estimated population = (Mean count per quadrat × Total area) ÷ Area of one quadrat. Ensure random placement to avoid bias.
样方法：估算种群 =（每个样方的平均计数 × 总面积）÷ 单个样方面积。需确保随机放置以避免偏差。
For the Lincoln Index (capture-mark-recapture): N = (M × C) ÷ R, where M = number marked on first visit, C = total caught on second visit, R = number of marked individuals recaptured.
林肯指数（标记重捕法）：N =（M × C）÷ R，其中 M = 第一次标记数量，C = 第二次捕获总数，R = 第二次捕获中带有标记的个体数。
N = (M × C) ÷ R
种群总数 N =（M × C）÷ R
10. Genetics: Punnett Squares & Probability Rules | 遗传学：庞纳特方格与概率规律
Genetic diagrams use Punnett squares to predict the genotypes and phenotypes of offspring. The probability of a particular genotype is expressed as a fraction or percentage.
遗传图解使用庞纳特方格预测后代的基因型和表现型。特定基因型出现的概率用分数或百分比表示。
In monohybrid crosses, each parent contributes one allele. The possible combinations are shown in a 2×2 grid. For example, crossing two heterozygous parents (Tt × Tt) gives a 25% chance of homozygous recessive offspring.
在单基因杂交中，每个亲本提供一个等位基因。可能的组合用2×2表格表示。例如，两个杂合亲本（Tt × Tt）杂交，后代纯合隐性的概率为25%。
Probability of a particular trait = (Number of squares showing that trait ÷ Total squares in Punnett square) × 100.
特定性状的概率 =（显示该性状的方格数 ÷ 庞纳特方格总方格数）× 100。
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