📚 Philosophy Key Terms Quick-Study Guide for Year 10 Cambridge | 剑桥 Year 10 哲学术语速记指南
Philosophy can feel like a foreign language, packed with abstract terms that trip up even the most confident students. This guide breaks down the essential vocabulary you will meet in Year 10 Cambridge Philosophy, giving you clear definitions and clever memory hooks to help you recall them under exam pressure. Work through the sections one by one, and soon these terms will become part of your everyday thinking.
哲学会让你感觉像在学一门外语，充满了各种抽象的术语，即使最自信的学生也会被绊倒。这篇指南分解了你将在剑桥 Year 10 哲学中遇到的核心词汇，给出清晰的定义和巧妙的记忆钩子，帮助你在考试压力下迅速回想起来。逐节学习，很快这些术语就会成为你日常思维的一部分。
1. Epistemology Foundations | 认识论基础术语
Knowledge as justified true belief – the classic three-part definition holds that you know something when you believe it, it is true, and you have good reasons (justification) for that belief. Remember the formula: K = J + T + B. Think of it as a three-legged stool; remove one leg and the stool collapses.
知识即得到辩护的真信念 – 经典的三要素定义认为，当你相信某件事、它真实、且你有充分的理由（辩护）时，你才算是知道。记住公式：知识 = 辩护 + 真理 + 信念。把它想象成一把三条腿的凳子，抽掉任何一条腿，凳子就会倒塌。
Empiricism – the view that all knowledge comes from sensory experience. Picture a baby born as a blank slate (tabula rasa), slowly filling it with colours and shapes through seeing, hearing, touching. Locke called the mind ‘white paper’ before experience writes on it.
经验主义 – 认为一切知识都来自感官经验的观点。想象一个婴儿出生时是一块白板 (tabula rasa)，通过看、听、触摸慢慢在白板上填满颜色和形状。洛克把心灵比作经验书写前的‘白纸’。
Rationalism – the contrasting view that reason is the primary source of knowledge, not the senses. Think of a spider spinning a web from its own body: rationalists believe the mind already contains innate ideas, and reasoning draws them out. Descartes’ ‘I think, therefore I am’ is the rationalist’s starting point.
理性主义 – 与经验主义相对的观点，认为理性而非感官才是知识的首要来源。想象一只蜘蛛从自己体内织出网：理性主义者相信心灵已包含天赋观念，推理将它们抽取出来。笛卡尔的‘我思故我在’就是理性主义的起点。
Scepticism – the attitude of doubting knowledge claims. Global sceptics claim we can know nothing at all; local sceptics target specific areas (e.g., the external world). Use the image of a detective refusing to trust any witness until hard evidence is produced.
怀疑论 – 对知识宣称持怀疑态度的观点。全面怀疑论者声称我们什么也不能知道；局部怀疑论者只针对特定领域（如外部世界）。想象一个侦探在有确凿证据前拒绝相信任何证人的画面。
A priori / A posteriori – a priori knowledge is independent of experience (e.g., 2+2=4), while a posteriori knowledge depends on experience (e.g., water boils at 100°C). To remember: ‘prior’ to experience vs ‘post’ experience.
先验 / 后验 – 先验知识独立于经验（如 2+2=4），而后验知识依赖于经验（如水在 100 °C 沸腾）。记忆窍门：‘先’于经验 vs 经验之‘后’。
2. Ethical Theories | 伦理学理论术语
Utilitarianism – the ethical theory that the right action is the one that produces the greatest happiness for the greatest number. Think of a scale balancing pleasure over pain: the act that tips the scale towards the most total happiness wins. Bentham’s slogan: ‘the greatest good for the greatest number.’
功利主义 – 认为正确行为就是为最大多数人带来最大幸福结果的伦理理论。想象一架天平在快乐和痛苦之间平衡：使总快乐量最高的行为胜出。边沁的口号：‘最大多数人的最大利益’。
Deontology – the duty-based ethics associated with Kant, where actions are right or wrong in themselves, regardless of consequences. Picture a rulebook that says ‘Do not lie’ — even if lying would bring a better outcome, the rule must be followed. Kant’s key test: the categorical imperative.
义务论 – 与康德相联系的基于义务的伦理学，行为本身对错与否，无关后果。想象一本写有‘不要说谎’的规则手册——即使说谎会带来更好的结果，也必须遵守规则。康德的核心检验：定言命令。
Virtue Ethics – the approach that focuses on the character of the person rather than on individual acts or consequences. Think of aiming to become a wise, courageous and temperate person; right actions flow naturally from good character. Aristotle’s golden mean: virtue lies between two extremes.
德性伦理学 – 关注人的品格而非具体行为或后果的伦理学进路。设想目标是成为一个明智、勇敢、节制的人；正确的行为自然地从好品格中流露。亚里士多德的中庸之道：德性位于两个极端之间。
Moral relativism – the view that moral judgements are true or false only relative to a particular culture or individual standpoint. Imagine different cultures looking at the same action through differently coloured glasses: there is no one ‘correct’ lens. Contrast with moral absolutism.
道德相对主义 – 认为道德判断的真假只相对某一特定文化或个人立场而言的观点。想象不同文化通过不同颜色的眼镜看同一行为：没有唯一‘正确’的镜片。对比道德绝对主义。
3. Metaphysics Key Concepts | 形而上学核心概念
Dualism – the theory that mind and body are two distinct substances. Picture a ghost driving a machine: the ghost (mind) is non-physical, while the machine (body) is physical. Descartes’ substance dualism separates res cogitans (thinking substance) from res extensa (extended substance).
二元论 – 认为心灵与身体是两种不同实体的理论。想象一个幽灵驾驶着一台机器：幽灵（心灵）是非物质的，而机器（身体）是物质的。笛卡尔的实体二元论将思维实体（res cogitans）与广延实体（res extensa）分开。
Materialism – the view that only physical matter exists and mental states are brain states. Think of the mind as what the brain does, just as digestion is what the stomach does. There is no separate ‘soul-stuff’; consciousness emerges from physical processes.
唯物主义 – 认为只存在物理物质，心理状态即脑状态的观点。把心灵看作大脑的活动，正如消化是胃的活动。不存在独立的‘灵魂物质’；意识从物理过程中涌现。
Free will and determinism – determinism claims every event is caused by prior events, so our choices are not free. Picture a row of dominoes toppling: each fall is determined by the previous push. Libertarians argue we do have genuine free will; compatibilists say free will is compatible with determinism if we act on our desires without coercion.
自由意志与决定论 – 决定论声称每个事件都由先前事件引起，因此我们的选择并不自由。想象一排倒下的多米诺骨牌：每次倒下都由前一次推动决定。自由意志论者主张我们确实有真正的自由意志；相容论者认为如果能不受强制地按自己欲望行动，自由意志就与决定论相容。
4. Logic and Argument | 逻辑与论证术语
Premise and conclusion – a premise is a reason given in support of a conclusion. Visualise a bridge: one or more premises form the supporting pillars, and the conclusion is the road that rests on them. In ‘All humans are mortal; Socrates is human; therefore Socrates is mortal,’ the first two statements are premises, the last the conclusion.
前提与结论 – 前提是为结论提供支持的理由。想象一座桥：一个或多个前提构成支撑的桥墩，结论是架在它们之上的路面。在‘所有人都会死；苏格拉底是人；因此苏格拉底会死’中，前两句是前提，最后一句是结论。
Deductive argument – an argument where the conclusion necessarily follows from the premises; if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. Think of a locked safe: the correct combination (true premises) guarantees the door opens (true conclusion). Mathematics uses deductive reasoning.
演绎论证 – 结论必然从前提推出的论证；如果前提为真，结论必然为真。想象一个上锁的保险柜：正确的密码（真前提）保证柜门打开（真结论）。数学采用演绎推理。
Inductive argument – an argument where the conclusion probably follows from the premises; the conclusion goes beyond what is contained in the premises. Picture rolling a die: observing it land on six 50 times in a row makes you suspect it is loaded, but you can never be absolutely certain. Science relies on inductive reasoning.
归纳论证 – 结论很可能从前提推出的论证；结论超出了前提所包含的内容。想象掷骰子：连续50次掷出六点会让你怀疑骰子有问题，但你永远不能绝对确定。科学依赖归纳推理。
Fallacy – a mistake in reasoning that weakens an argument. Learn the ad hominem fallacy (attacking the person, not the argument) as if a football referee gave a red card to a player for having a bad haircut — irrelevant to the game.
谬误 – 削弱论证力量的推理错误。记住人身攻击谬误（攻击人而非论证）：就像足球裁判因为球员发型难看而给红牌——与比赛无关。
5. Philosophy of Religion | 宗教哲学术语
Theism – belief in the existence of a God or gods, typically one who is personal, omnipotent, omniscient and perfectly good. Picture a watchmaker who designs, creates and sustains the universe. Theism is the default stance of major world religions like Christianity, Islam and Judaism.
有神论 – 相信存在一个或多个神，通常是一位人格化、全能、全知、全善的神。想象一位设计和创造宇宙并维持其运转的钟表匠。有神论是基督教、伊斯兰教和犹太教等主要世界宗教的默认立场。
Atheism – the absence of belief in any gods. Not necessarily a positive assertion that no god exists (strong atheism), but often simply a lack of conviction (weak atheism). Think of it as being free from a god-belief rather than fighting against one.
无神论 – 不相信任何神存在。不一定积极断言没有神（强无神论），往往只是没有信仰（弱无神论）。把它想成是不受神灵信仰束缚，而不是反抗神灵。
Agnosticism – the view that we cannot know whether God exists or not. Picture a juror who says, ‘The evidence is insufficient to reach a verdict either way.’ Huxley coined the term to describe a position of honest uncertainty.
不可知论 – 认为我们无法知道神是否存在的观点。想象一名陪审员说：‘证据不足以作出任何一方的裁决。’赫胥黎造出此词来描述一种诚实地不确定的立场。
Cosmological argument – an argument for God’s existence that claims the universe must have a first cause or necessary being. Trace every effect back to its cause, and you eventually need an uncaused cause. Aquinas called it the ‘unmoved mover.’
宇宙论论证 – 从宇宙必有一个第一因或必然存在来论证神存在的论证。追溯每个结果的原因，最终需要一个无因之因。阿奎那称之为‘不动的推动者’。
Teleological argument – the argument from design: the complexity and order in the universe point to an intelligent designer. Think of finding a watch on a beach; you would infer a watchmaker, not random natural forces. Paley’s watchmaker analogy is the classic expression.
目的论论证 – 设计论证：宇宙中的复杂性和秩序指向一位智能设计者。想象在海滩上发现一块手表；你会推断是钟表匠造的，而非随机的自然力量。佩利的手表类比是其经典表述。
6. Political Philosophy | 政治哲学术语
Social contract – the idea that people agree to give up some freedoms and submit to an authority in exchange for protection of their remaining rights. Picture a group of island survivors deciding to elect a leader and follow common rules for everyone’s safety. Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau each developed versions of the social contract.
社会契约 – 人们同意放弃部分自由并服从权威，以换取对剩余权利的保护的观念。想象一群荒岛幸存者决定选出一位领袖并遵守共同规则以确保所有人的安全。霍布斯、洛克和卢梭各自发展了社会契约的版本。
Democracy – rule by the people, either directly or through elected representatives. Think of it as a steering wheel that every eligible citizen gets to grip, at Equal intervals through voting. Key principles: equality, participation, majority rule with minority rights.
民主 – 由人民直接或通过选举代表进行的统治。把它想成是一个方向盘，每个合格公民都能每隔一段时间通过投票去握一握。核心原则：平等、参与、多数决且保护少数权利。
Justice – in political philosophy, the fair distribution of benefits and burdens in a society. Plato saw justice as each part doing its proper job; Rawls imagined justice as principles we would choose behind a ‘veil of ignorance’ about our own position.
正义 – 在政治哲学中，指社会中利益与负担的公平分配。柏拉图将正义视为各司其职；罗尔斯想象正义是我们对自己地位一无所知时在‘无知之幕’背后会选择的原则。
Negative and positive freedom – negative freedom is freedom from interference (e.g., freedom of speech), while positive freedom is the capacity to act on one’s true desires (self-mastery). Think of a gate: negative freedom means no one locks you in; positive freedom means you have the strength to walk out.
消极自由与积极自由 – 消极自由是不受干涉的自由（如言论自由），积极自由是能够按照真实欲望行动的能力（自主）。想象一道门：消极自由意味着没人把你锁在里面；积极自由意味着你有力量走出去。
7. Philosophy of Mind Terms | 心灵哲学术语
Qualia – the subjective, qualitative feel of an experience, like the redness of red or the pain of a headache. Think of the taste of chocolate: no amount of brain scanning can fully convey that personal ‘what-it-is-like’ quality. Qualia pose a challenge for materialist explanations of consciousness.
感受质 – 经验的主观感受性质，比如红色的红感或头痛的疼痛感。想想巧克力的味道：无论扫描多少大脑影像都无法完全传达那种‘像是什么’的个人感受。感受质对意识的唯物主义解释提出了挑战。
Intentionality – the aboutness of mental states; thoughts are always about something. Picture an arrow: your thought points at an object, real or imaginary, just as an archer’s arrow aims at a target. Brentano considered intentionality the mark of the mental.
意向性 – 心理状态的指向性；思想总是关于某种事物。想象一支箭：你的思想指向某个对象，无论是真实的还是想象的，就像弓手的箭瞄准目标。布伦塔诺认为意向性是心理的标志。
Behaviourism (philosophical) – the view that mental states are just dispositions to behave in certain ways. Saying someone is thirsty means they will drink if offered water. It avoids mysterious inner entities, but struggles with qualia and inner thought.
行为主义（哲学上的） – 认为心理状态只是以某些方式行为的倾向。说某人口渴，就是说他如果得到水就会喝。它避免了神秘的内在实体，但难以解释感受质和内在思维。
8. Key Thinkers and Their -isms | 关键思想家及他们代表的‘主义’
Plato’s Theory of Forms – true reality consists of perfect, unchanging abstract Forms (or Ideas), and the physical world is only a shadowy copy. Remember the Allegory of the Cave: prisoners seeing shadows on the wall mistake them for reality. The Forms are the real objects outside the cave.
柏拉图的理型论 – 真实的实在由完美、不变的抽象理型（或理念）构成，物理世界只是黯淡的摹本。记住洞穴寓言：囚徒看到墙上的影子却误以为是真实。理型才是洞穴外的真实对象。
Aristotle’s Four Causes – to fully explain something, you need to specify its material cause (what it is made of), formal cause (its shape or essence), efficient cause (the agent that made it happen), and final cause (its purpose or telos). Think of a statue: marble (material), shape of a hero (formal), sculptor (efficient), to honour a victory (final).
亚里士多德的四因说 – 要完整地解释一个事物，你需要说明它的质料因（由什么构成）、形式因（它的形状或本质）、动力因（使它发生的推动者）和目的因（它的目的）。想象一座雕像：大理石（质料）、英雄形象（形式）、雕塑家（动力）、纪念胜利（目的）。
Descartes’ Methodological Doubt – he resolved to doubt everything that could possibly be doubted until he found something indubitable. His rock-bottom certainty was ‘I think, therefore I am’ (cogito, ergo sum). Use the analogy of demolishing a house to its foundation before rebuilding.
笛卡尔的方法论怀疑 – 他决心怀疑一切可以怀疑的东西，直到找到不可怀疑之物。他最终的确定性是‘我思故我在’。用拆房子到地基再重建来类比。
Hume’s Fork – Hume divided all meaningful statements into two sorts: relations of ideas (tautologies, known a priori) and matters of fact (empirically testable). Any claim that fits neither is ‘sophistry and illusion.’ This becomes a weapon against unverifiable metaphysical speculation.
休谟的叉子 – 休谟将所有有意义的陈述分为两类：观念关系（重言式，先验可知）和事实判断（经验可检验）。任何不属于这两类的宣称都是‘诡辩和幻想’。这成为反对无法验证的形而上学思辨的武器。
9. Revision Mnemonics for Abstract Terms | 抽象术语的速记口诀
Using acronyms – compress lists into catchy acronyms. For the three classic ethical theories, remember ‘UVD’: Utilitarianism, Virtue ethics, Deontology. Picture a shining UVD laser beam scanning arguments for their ethical structure.
使用首字母缩略词 – 将列表压缩成上口的缩略词。对于三种经典伦理理论，记住‘UVD’：功利主义 (Utilitarianism)、德性伦理学 (Virtue ethics)、义务论 (Deontology)。想象一束闪亮的 UVD 激光扫描论证的伦理结构。
Story linking – create a short narrative that connects abstract terms. For free will, imagine a FREE man who WILLs himself to stop a row of dominoes (determinism) by brute force. The mental picture stores the concepts in a single memorable scene.
故事串联 – 编一个短故事把抽象术语连接起来。对于自由意志，想象一个自由 (FREE) 的人决意 (WILLs) 用蛮力阻止一排多米诺骨牌（决定论）。这个心理画面将概念储存于一个难忘的场景中。
Dual coding with diagrams – draw a simple diagram for each concept: an eye with a brain for empiricism vs rationalism; a balance scale for utilitarianism. The visual plus verbal encoding gives you two retrieval routes in the exam hall.
利用图表双重编码 – 为每个概念画一张简图：用一只眼睛加一个大脑表示经验主义与理性主义；用一架天平表示功利主义。视觉加上言语的双重编码在考场中给你两条提取路径。
10. Putting Terms into Exam Answers | 将术语运用于考试答题
Using technical vocabulary naturally – when explaining an argument, drop in the exact term (‘this is an a priori premise because…’) rather than a vague description. Examiners award marks for precise terminology, so make it habit to say ‘conclusion’ instead of ‘the last bit’ and ’empirical evidence’ instead of ‘stuff we see’.
自然地使用专业词汇 – 在解释论证时，插入精确术语（‘这是一个先验前提因为……’），而不是用模糊的描述。考官给精确术语加分，因此养成说‘结论’而不是‘最后一句’，说‘经验证据’而不是‘我们看到的东西’的习惯。
Defining terms in your own words first – even if you know the formal definition, begin with a simple personal paraphrase to show understanding, then give the precise technical statement. For example: ‘Dualism means that the mind and body are completely different kinds of stuff; more formally, it is the view that mental substances are non-physical and distinct from physical substances.’
先用自己的话界定术语 – 即使你知道正式定义，也要先用简单的个人化转述展示理解，再给出精确的技术陈述。例如：‘二元论意思是心灵和身体是完全不同的两类东西；更正式地说，它是认为心理实体是非物质的，且与物理实体有区别的观点。’
Linking terms together – show the relationship between concepts to score higher marks. ‘While rationalism grounds knowledge in reason, empiricism grounds it in sensory experience, leading to their disagreement over innate ideas.’ This demonstrates philosophical fluency beyond mere memorisation.
将术语串联起来 – 展示概念之间的关系以获得更高分数。‘理性主义将知识奠基在理性上，而经验主义奠基在感官经验上，导致它们在天赋观念上的分歧。’这展示出超越单纯记忆的哲学流畅度。
Common exam command words – ‘Explain’ means set out the meaning clearly using examples. ‘Assess’ means weigh up strengths and weaknesses and give a justified view. ‘Discuss’ means present different viewpoints and reach a reasoned conclusion. Prepare short model sentences for each.
常见考试指令词 – ‘解释’意味着用例子清楚地阐明含义。‘评估’意味着权衡优缺点并给出有依据的观点。‘讨论’意味着呈现不同观点并得出有理有据的结论。为每条准备简短的模板句子。
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