📚 Philosophy Vocabulary & Terminology Quick Memorisation Guide | 哲学词汇术语速记指南
Mastering philosophy at Year 11 SQA level begins with a confident grasp of its precise vocabulary. Whether you are analysing knowledge claims, evaluating moral arguments, or dissecting the mind-body problem, the right terms act as your conceptual toolkit. This guide presents key terminology paired with memory shortcuts, designed to help you recall and apply each word accurately under exam conditions. Reading these terms in both English and Chinese strengthens deeper conceptual understanding and retention.
掌握 Year 11 SQA 阶段的哲学，始于准确掌握其精确术语。无论你是在分析知识论断、评价道德论证，还是剖析心身问题，正确的术语都是你的概念工具箱。本指南提供了关键术语，并配以记忆技巧，旨在帮助你在考试环境中准确回忆和运用每个词。通过中英双语学习这些术语，可以强化深层概念理解与记忆保持。
1. Core Epistemological Terms | 核心认识论术语
Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that investigates the nature, sources, and limits of knowledge. It asks questions like ‘What can we know?’ and ‘How do we know it?’
认识论是研究知识的性质、来源和限度的哲学分支。它提出诸如“我们能知道什么？”以及“我们如何知道？”的问题。
A priori knowledge is knowledge that is independent of experience, justified by reason alone (e.g., 2 + 3 = 5).
先天知识是不依赖于经验、仅凭理性即可证明的知识（例如 2 + 3 = 5）。
A posteriori knowledge is knowledge that depends on sensory experience or empirical evidence (e.g., ‘Water boils at 100°C’).
后天知识是依赖于感官经验或经验证据的知识（例如“水在100°C沸腾”）。
Rationalism claims that reason is the primary source of knowledge; key thinkers include Plato and Descartes.
理性主义主张理性是知识的主要来源；代表人物有柏拉图和笛卡尔。
Empiricism asserts that all knowledge originates in sense experience; Locke and Hume are central figures.
经验主义断言一切知识都起源于感官经验；洛克和休谟是核心人物。
Scepticism is the view that we cannot have certain knowledge. Global scepticism doubts all knowledge, while local scepticism targets specific areas.
怀疑论认为我们无法拥有确定的知识。全面怀疑论质疑一切知识，局部怀疑论则针对特定领域。
- Tip: ‘A priori’ = ‘prior’ to experience; ‘A posteriori’ = ‘post’ experience.
- 提示：“先天”在经验之“先”；“后天”在经验之“后”。
2. Metaphysical Jargon | 形而上学专业术语
Metaphysics explores the fundamental nature of reality, including concepts such as being, time, space, and causality.
形而上学探究实在的根本性质，涵盖存在、时间、空间和因果性等概念。
Ontology is a sub-branch concerned specifically with the study of being and existence.
本体论是专门研究存在和实有的子分支。
Determinism holds that every event is causally necessitated by prior events and the laws of nature, leaving no room for free will.
决定论主张每个事件都由先前事件和自然法则因果必然地决定，没有自由意志的余地。
Libertarianism (in metaphysics) defends genuine free will, arguing that human actions can be uncaused or self-determined.
自由意志主义（在形而上学中）捍卫真正的自由意志，认为人类行为可以是没有原因的或自我决定的。
Compatibilism (soft determinism) reconciles determinism with free will by redefining free will as the ability to act according to one’s desires without coercion.
相容论（弱决定论）通过将自由意志重新定义为在没有强制的情况下按自己的欲望行动的能力，从而调和决定论与自由意志。
Dualism posits that mind and body are two distinct substances; Descartes’ substance dualism is the classic example.
二元论假定心灵和身体是两种不同的实体；笛卡尔的实体二元论是经典范例。
Materialism (physicalism) claims that only physical matter exists, and mental states are identical to brain states.
唯物主义（物理主义）声称只有物理物质存在，心理状态等同于大脑状态。
3. Ethical Theories in a Nutshell | 伦理理论概要
Utilitarianism is a consequentialist theory stating that the morally right action is the one that produces the greatest happiness for the greatest number. Jeremy Bentham devised the hedonic calculus; John Stuart Mill refined quality distinctions.
功利主义是一种后果论理论，认为道德上正确的行为是为最大多数人带来最大幸福的行为。边沁设计了快乐计算法；密尔提出了质的区分。
Deontology (from Greek ‘deon’ meaning duty) is an ethics of duty where the moral worth of an action lies in the adherence to rules, not consequences. Immanuel Kant’s categorical imperative commands us to act only on maxims that can be universalised.
义务论（源自希腊语“deon”，意为义务）是一种义务伦理学，其中行为的道德价值在于遵守规则，而非后果。康德的无条件道德律令命令我们只依据可普遍化的准则行动。
Virtue Ethics, inspired by Aristotle, focuses on the character of the moral agent rather than isolated actions. The goal is to cultivate virtues (like courage and honesty) to achieve eudaimonia (human flourishing).
美德伦理学受亚里士多德启发，关注道德主体的品格而非孤立行为。目标是培养美德（如勇气和诚实）以实现 eudaimonia（人的幸福绽放）。
Natural Moral Law, associated with Aquinas, holds that reason can discover the purpose (telos) inherent in human nature, and right action follows from realising those purposes.
自然道德法与阿奎那相关，认为理性可以发现人类本性中固有的目的（telos），正确行为源自实现这些目的。
Divine Command Theory asserts that what is morally right is commanded by God, and wrong because God forbids it, raising the Euthyphro dilemma: is something good because God commands it, or does God command it because it is good?
神命论断言道德上的对错由上帝的命令决定，从而引发了尤息弗罗悖论：一件事是因为上帝命令才是善的，还是因为它是善的上帝才命令？
4. Political Philosophy Essentials | 政治哲学精要
Social Contract Theory explains the legitimacy of state authority through an imaginary agreement among individuals to form a society and accept obligations in return for protection. Key figures include Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau.
社会契约论通过个人之间形成社会、接受义务以换取保护的假想协议，来解释国家权威的合法性。关键人物有霍布斯、洛克和卢梭。
Natural Rights (Locke) are rights inherent to all humans, such as life, liberty, and property, which governments must protect.
自然权利（洛克）是所有人类固有的权利，如生命、自由和财产权，政府必须保护这些权利。
Utilitarian Politics evaluates laws and policies based on their tendency to maximise overall happiness; often associated with Mill’s harm principle, which allows liberty except to prevent harm to others.
功利主义政治根据法律和政策促进整体幸福的倾向对其进行评价；常与密尔的伤害原则相关，该原则允许自由，除非为了防止对他人的伤害。
Positive and Negative Liberty (Isaiah Berlin): negative liberty is freedom from interference by others; positive liberty is the freedom to be one’s own master and realise one’s potential.
积极自由与消极自由（以赛亚·伯林）：消极自由是不受他人干涉的自由；积极自由是成为自己主人、实现自身潜能的自由。
Distributive Justice concerns the fair allocation of resources. Rawls’ difference principle allows inequalities only if they benefit the least advantaged.
分配正义关注资源的公平分配。罗尔斯的差异原则只允许有利于最不利者的不平等。
5. Logic and Argument Form | 逻辑与论证形式
Deductive argument aims to provide conclusive support for its conclusion; if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. Example: All men are mortal; Socrates is a man; therefore Socrates is mortal.
演绎论证旨在为其结论提供决定性支持；如果前提为真，结论必然为真。例如：所有人都会死；苏格拉底是人；所以苏格拉底会死。
Inductive argument aims to make its conclusion probable, not certain. Most dogs are friendly; Fido is a dog; so Fido is probably friendly.
归纳论证旨在使结论具有可能性，而非确定性。多数狗都很友好；菲菲是狗；所以菲菲很可能友好。
Validity is a property of deductive arguments where, if the premises are true, the conclusion logically follows. A valid argument with true premises is sound.
有效性是演绎论证的一种属性，即如果前提为真，结论逻辑上必然得出。一个有效且前提为真的论证是可靠的。
Cogency applies to inductive arguments: a cogent argument is strong and has all true premises.
说服力适用于归纳论证：一个有说服力的论证是强有力且所有前提都为真的论证。
Logical symbols help formalise reasoning: ¬ (not), ∧ (and), ∨ (or), → (if…then), ↔ (if and only if), ∀ (for all), ∃ (there exists).
逻辑符号有助于将推理形式化：¬（非），∧（与），∨（或），→（如果…则），↔（当且仅当），∀（对所有），∃（存在）。
- Mnemonic: Sound = Valid + True premises. Cogent = Strong + True premises.
- 助记：可靠 = 有效 + 真前提。有说服力 = 强有力 + 真前提。
6. Philosophy of Religion Key Words | 宗教哲学关键词
Theism is the belief in at least one deity; monotheism is belief in one God.
有神论是相信至少有一位神；一神论是信仰唯一的神。
Atheism is the lack of belief in any deity. Agnosticism suspends judgement, claiming we cannot know whether God exists.
无神论是不信仰任何神。不可知论悬置判断，声称我们无法知道上帝是否存在。
Ontological Argument (Anselm, Descartes) attempts to deduce God’s existence from the very concept of a perfect being.
本体论论证（安瑟尔谟、笛卡尔）试图从完美存在的概念本身演绎出上帝的存在。
Cosmological Argument (Aquinas’ Five Ways) argues for a first cause or necessary being to explain the universe’s existence.
宇宙论论证（阿奎那的五路论证）论证第一因或必然存在物以解释宇宙的存在。
Teleological Argument (Paley’s watchmaker) infers an intelligent designer from apparent purpose and order in nature.
目的论论证（佩利的钟表匠）从自然界显见的目的和秩序推断出一位智能设计者。
Problem of Evil challenges the existence of an all-powerful, all-loving God given the existence of suffering. Theodicies (e.g., free will defence) attempt to justify God.
恶的问题鉴于苦难的存在，对全能全善的上帝的存在构成挑战。神义论（如自由意志辩护）试图为上帝辩护。
7. Mind-Body Problem Vocabulary | 心身问题词汇
Qualia are the subjective, qualitative aspects of conscious experience, such as the redness of red or the pain of a headache.
感受质是意识经验的主观的、质性的方面，例如红色的“红”感或头痛的痛感。
Intentionality is the ‘aboutness’ of mental states; thoughts are always about something, unlike physical objects.
意向性是心理状态的“关于性”；思想总是关于某物的，这与物理对象不同。
Epiphenomenalism holds that mental events are side-effects of physical brain processes without any causal power themselves.
副现象论主张心理事件是大脑物理过程的副作用，自身没有任何因果效力。
Interactionism (Descartes) claims that mind and body, though distinct, causally interact in the pineal gland.
交互作用论（笛卡尔）声称心灵和身体虽然不同，但在松果体中发生因果相互作用。
The hard problem of consciousness (David Chalmers) asks why and how physical processes give rise to subjective experience.
意识的困难问题（大卫·查尔默斯）询问物理过程为何以及如何产生主观经验。
Functionalism defines mental states by their causal roles, not by their material composition; the mind is like software running on brain hardware.
功能主义用因果角色来定义心理状态，而非其物质构成；心智就像在大脑硬件上运行的软件。
8. Key Philosophers & Their ‘Isms’ | 关键哲学家及其“主义”
| Philosopher | Associated View | Quick Thought |
|---|---|---|
| Plato | Rationalism, Theory of Forms | Knowledge is recollection of eternal Forms. |
| Aristotle | Virtue Ethics, Empiricism | The golden mean; telos in nature. |
| Descartes | Dualism, Foundationalism | Cogito ergo sum; clear and distinct ideas. |
| Hume | Empiricism, Scepticism | Problem of induction; no necessary connection. |
| Kant | Deontology, Transcendental Idealism | Act from duty; phenomena vs noumena. |
| Mill | Utilitarianism, Liberty | Higher and lower pleasures; harm principle. |
这张表列出了一些关键的哲学家及其相关观点，方便你快速关联。
9. Memorisation Hacks: Acronyms & Associations | 记忆技巧：首字母缩略词与联想
Use the acronym RED CaPS for epistemological positions: Rationalism, Empiricism, Descartes, Plato, Scepticism.
用缩略词 RED CaPS 记忆认识论立场：理性主义、经验主义、笛卡尔、柏拉图、怀疑论。
For ethical theories remember DUV: Deontology, Utilitarianism, Virtue Ethics. Picture a ‘duvet’ covering moral philosophy.
对于伦理理论，记住 DUV：义务论、功利主义、美德伦理学。想象一张“duvet”（羽绒被）覆盖着道德哲学。
The problem of evil’s theodicies can be recalled via Free (Free Will Defence), Soul (Soul-making theodicy), and Test (life as a test).
恶的问题的神义论可以通过“自由（Free Will Defence）、灵魂（Soul-making theodicy）、考验（life as a test）”来回忆。
Link arguments visually: the cosmological argument is a ‘domino chain’ of causes; the teleological argument is a ‘watch in a field’.
可视化联系论证：宇宙论论证是原因的“多米诺骨牌链”；目的论论证是“田野中的手表”。
Associate Descartes’ ‘Cogito’ with ‘I think, therefore I am’ and sketch a thought bubble to embed the concept.
将笛卡尔的“Cogito”与“我思故我在”联系起来，画一个思想泡泡来嵌入这个概念。
10. Common Misconceptions & Exam Traps | 常见误解与考试陷阱
Do not confuse ‘valid’ with ‘true’. An argument can be valid even if its premises are false; validity concerns logical structure.
不要将“有效”与“真”混淆。一个论证即使前提为假，也可以是有效的；有效性关乎逻辑结构。
Utilitarianism is often oversimplified as ‘the greatest good’; remember it is ‘the greatest happiness for the greatest number’, requiring careful consideration of consequences.
功利主义常被简化为“最大善好”；要记住它是“最大多数人的最大幸福”，需要仔细考虑后果。
The ‘freedom’ in free will debates can mean different things: libertarian freedom (unconditioned) vs compatibilist freedom (voluntary action).
自由意志辩论中的“自由”可以指不同事物：自由意志主义的自由（无条件的）与相容论的自由（自愿行为）。
Avoid attributing simplistic slogans to philosophers—Nietzsche did not merely say ‘God is dead’ as a celebration; it is a cultural observation.
避免将简单的口号归于哲学家——尼采不仅仅说“上帝已死”作为一种庆祝，那是一种文化观察。
When discussing the problem of evil, ensure you distinguish moral evil (caused by humans) and natural evil (caused by nature), as different theodicies address them differently.
在讨论恶的问题时，要区分道德恶（由人类引起）和自然恶（由自然引起），因为不同的神义论以不同方式处理它们。
11. Applying Terms to Exam Questions | 术语在考题中的应用
In ‘Explain’ questions, unpack the term’s definition clearly, provide an example, and link it to the relevant philosophical position. For instance, when explaining ‘a priori’, mention Descartes’ cogito as a paradigm example.
在“解释”类问题中，清晰拆解术语的定义，提供一个例子，并将其与相关的哲学立场联系起来。例如，在解释“先天”时，提及笛卡尔的我思作为范例。
In ‘Evaluate’ or ‘Discuss’ questions, use terminology precisely to structure your judgement. Say ‘Hume’s objection challenges the teleological argument’s analogy because…’ rather than ‘Hume said the design argument is weak.’
在“评价”或“讨论”类问题中，精确使用术语来构建你的判断。要说“休谟的反对意见挑战了目的论论证的类比，因为……”，而不是“休谟说设计论证薄弱”。
Always define technical terms the first time you use them in an essay— examiners look for conceptual precision.
在文章中首次使用专业术语时一定要下定义——考官看重概念的精确性。
Practise writing quick mini-definitions: ‘Epistemology: the branch of philosophy studying knowledge, its sources and limits.’ This builds automatic recall.
练习快速写迷你定义：“认识论：研究知识及其来源和限度的哲学分支。”这能建立自动回忆。
12. Final Recap: The 20 Must-Know Terms | 最终回顾：20 个必知术语
| # | English Term | 中文术语 | Memory Trigger |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Epistemology | 认识论 | ‘episteme’ = knowledge |
| 2 | A priori | 先天的 | prior to experience |
| 3 | Empiricism | 经验主义 | ’empeiria’ = experience |
| 4 | Rationalism | 理性主义 | reason alone |
| 5 | Utilitarianism | 功利主义 | utility = happiness |
| 6 | Categorical Imperative | 绝对命令 | universalise the maxim |
| 7 | Virtue Ethics | 美德伦理学 | character & eudaimonia |
| 8 | Dualism | 二元论 | mind ≠ body |
| 9 | Materialism | 唯物主义 | only physical matter |
| 10 | Determinism | 更多咨询请联系16621398022（同微信）
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