📚 Year 10 CCEA Biology: Formulas & Theorems Quick Reference Handbook | CCEA 十年级生物：公式定理速查手册
This handbook brings together all the essential formulas, equations and key principles you will encounter in Year 10 CCEA GCSE Biology. Use it to revise calculation methods, apply concepts to unfamiliar contexts and sharpen your exam technique.
本手册汇集了CCEA十年级GCSE生物课程中所有重要的公式、方程和关键原理。借助它，你可以复习计算方法、将概念应用于陌生情境，并提升应试技巧。
1. Magnification | 放大倍率
Magnification tells you how many times larger an image is compared with the real object. The formula is Magnification = Image size / Actual size.
放大倍率表示图像比实际物体放大的倍数。公式为 放大倍率 = 图像尺寸 / 实际尺寸。
Both measurements must be in the same unit. If the image size is measured in mm, convert the actual size to mm before calculating.
两个测量值必须使用相同单位。如果图像尺寸以毫米为单位，在计算前请将实际尺寸也换算为毫米。
It is often written as M = I / A, where M is magnification, I is image size and A is actual size. Remember: there are 1000 micrometres (µm) in 1 mm and 1000 nanometres (nm) in 1 µm.
常写作 M = I / A，其中M为放大倍率，I为图像尺寸，A为实际尺寸。记住：1 mm = 1000 µm；1 µm = 1000 nm。
2. Actual Size of a Specimen | 标本实际尺寸
When you know the magnification and the image size, you can find the true size: Actual size = Image size / Magnification.
若已知放大倍率和图像尺寸，便可求出真实尺寸：实际尺寸 = 图像尺寸 / 放大倍率。
This is particularly useful when working with micrographs. Measure the image size carefully with a ruler, then divide by the printed magnification.
这在处理显微照片时特别有用。用尺子仔细测量图像尺寸，然后除以标明的放大倍率。
Write the answer in the most suitable unit, often µm or mm, and show your working clearly for full marks.
用最合适的单位写出答案，通常是µm或mm，并清晰展示计算过程以获得满分。
3. Rate of Enzyme Activity | 酶活性速率
The rate of an enzyme-controlled reaction can be calculated as Rate = Quantity of product formed / Time or Quantity of substrate used / Time.
酶促反应速率的计算公式为 速率 = 生成的产物量 / 时间 或 消耗的底物量 / 时间。
For fast reactions, it is often easier to use Rate = 1 / time for a specific endpoint, such as the disappearance of starch or the appearance of a colour change.
对于快速反应，使用 速率 = 1 / 时间（基于特定终点，如淀粉消失或颜色出现）往往更方便。
Another useful concept is the temperature coefficient Q₁₀: Q₁₀ = rate at (T + 10) °C / rate at T °C. A Q₁₀ of about 2 indicates the rate roughly doubles for every 10 °C rise, until the enzyme denatures.
另一个有用概念是温度系数Q₁₀：Q₁₀ = 在(T + 10) °C下的速率 / 在T °C下的速率。若Q₁₀约为2，表示在酶未变性前，温度每升高10 °C，反应速率约增加一倍。
4. Rate of Photosynthesis | 光合作用速率
The rate of photosynthesis is often measured by the volume of oxygen produced per unit time: Rate = Volume of O₂ given off / Time.
光合作用速率常通过单位时间内释放的氧气体积来衡量：速率 = 释放的O₂体积 / 时间。
Common units include cm³/min or bubbles per minute. You can also measure the uptake of CO₂ or the increase in biomass (dry mass) over time.
常用单位为cm³/min或每分钟气泡数。你也可以测量CO₂吸收量或生物量（干重）的累计增长。
Always state the controlled variables, such as temperature and light intensity, when comparing rates.
在比较速率时，务必要说明受控变量，例如温度和光照强度。
5. Respiratory Quotient (RQ) | 呼吸商 (RQ)
The respiratory quotient indicates which fuel is being respired: RQ = CO₂ produced / O₂ consumed.
呼吸商可显示正在被呼吸消耗的燃料类型：RQ = 产生的CO₂ / 消耗的O₂。
For pure carbohydrate, RQ = 1.0; for lipids, RQ ≈ 0.7; for proteins, RQ is around 0.8–0.9. Values can be calculated from respirometer data.
纯碳水化合物的RQ = 1.0；脂质的RQ ≈ 0.7；蛋白质的RQ约为0.8–0.9。这些数值可通过呼吸计的实验数据算得。
6. Energy Transfer Efficiency in Food Chains | 食物链中的能量传递效率
The efficiency of energy transfer between trophic levels is Efficiency (%) = (Energy available to the next level / Energy available at the previous level) × 100%.
营养级之间能量传递的效率为 效率（%）=（传递至下一级可用的能量 / 上一级可用的能量）× 100%。
Energy is usually measured in kJ per m² per year. Most transfers are only about 10% efficient, the rest being lost as heat, movement and uneaten parts.
能量通常以kJ/（m²·年）为单位。绝大多数传递效率仅约10%，其余能量以热能、运动和未消化部分等形式散失。
7. Biomass Transfer Efficiency | 生物量传递效率
Biomass transfer efficiency is very similar: Efficiency (%) = (Biomass in the higher trophic level / Biomass in the lower trophic level) × 100%.
生物量传递效率的计算与之类似：效率（%）=（较高营养级的生物量 / 较低营养级的生物量）× 100%。
Biomass is the dry mass of organic matter and is typically given in g/m² or kg/ha. This calculation helps explain the pyramid shape of biomass in ecosystems.
生物量是指有机物的干重，通常以g/m²或kg/ha表示。这一计算有助于解释生态系统中生物量金字塔的形状。
8. Population Density Using Quadrats | 使用样方估算种群密度
To estimate the population size of a plant species, use Mean number per quadrat = Total count / Number of quadrats.
估算植物物种的种群大小时，使用 每样方的平均个体数 = 各样方总个体数 / 样方数量。
Then: Population estimate = (Mean per quadrat) × (Total area of the habitat / Area of one quadrat).
进而：种群估计值 =（每样方平均个体数）×（栖息地总面积 / 单个样方面积）。
Place quadrats randomly to avoid bias and use a sufficient number to improve reliability.
随机设置样方以避免偏差，并使用足够的样方数量以提高可靠性。
9. Capture-Recapture Population Estimate | 标记重捕法估算种群
For mobile animals, the Lincoln index provides an estimate: N = (M × C) / R, where N = population estimate, M = number marked on first capture, C = total caught on second capture, and R = number of marked individuals in the recapture.
对于移动动物，林肯指数可给出估计值：N = (M × C) / R，式中N为种群估计值，M为首次捕获并标记的数量，C为第二次捕获的总数，R为第二次捕获中带有标记的个体数。
This method assumes that marked individuals mix evenly, no births or deaths, and that marks are not lost. It is most accurate for closed populations over a short time.
该方法假设标记个体均匀混合、无出生或死亡，且标记不会丢失。对于短时间内的封闭种群最为准确。
10. Reaction Time – Ruler Drop Method | 反应时间——尺子下落法
Human reaction time can be estimated by dropping a ruler and using t = √(2d / g), where d is the distance the ruler falls (in metres) and g = 9.8 m/s².
人类反应时间可通过尺子下落实验估算，用公式 t = √(2d / g)，其中d是尺子下落的距离（米），g = 9.8 m/s²。
Convert the distance from cm to m before substituting. The result, t, is in seconds. This calculation links biology with physics.
代入前先将距离从厘米换算成米。结果t的单位为秒。这一计算将生物学与物理学联系起来。
11. Cardiac Output and Heart Rate | 心输出量与心率
Cardiac output is the volume of blood pumped by the heart per minute: Cardiac output (CO) = Stroke volume (SV) × Heart rate (HR).
心输出量是心脏每分钟泵出的血液体积：心输出量（CO）= 每搏输出量（SV）× 心率（HR）。
SV is the volume of blood ejected per beat (typically 70 ml), and HR is beats per minute. CO is usually expressed in L/min.
SV是每次心跳射出的血量（通常约70 ml），HR为每分钟心跳次数。CO通常以L/min表示。
12. Genetic Principles: Punnett Squares & Probability | 遗传原理：庞纳特方格与概率
Mendel’s law of segregation states that allele pairs separate during gamete formation. A Punnett square can predict the outcome of a cross.
孟德尔分离定律指出等位基因在配子形成时分离。庞纳特方格可预测杂交结果。
For a monohybrid cross between two heterozygous parents (Aa × Aa), the possible offspring genotypes are: 1 AA : 2 Aa : 1 aa. The phenotype ratio for a dominant trait is 3 : 1.
对于杂合子亲本（Aa × Aa）的单基因杂交，子代可能的基因型比例为 1 AA : 2 Aa : 1 aa。显性性状的表型比为 3 : 1。
Probability is often used in genetic predictions. For each offspring, the chance of inheriting a recessive allele from both parents is ½ × ½ = ¼, or 25%.
概率常用于遗传预测。对每个子代，从双亲各继承一个隐性等位基因的概率为 ½ × ½ = ¼，即25%。
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