📚 Year 11 AQA Philosophy: Essential Terminology Quick Memorisation Guide | AQA 哲学关键术语速记指南
Mastering philosophical vocabulary is half the battle in AQA Year 11 Philosophy. Without precise terms, your arguments remain vague and examiners cannot reward your understanding. This guide breaks down the most important terms by topic, pairs them with memory hacks, and shows you exactly how to use them in essays to unlock higher marks.
掌握哲学词汇就是打赢 AQA Year 11 哲学考试的半壁江山。缺少精确的术语，你的论证就会含糊其词，阅卷人也无法认可你的理解。本指南按主题梳理最重要术语，搭配记忆技巧，并展示如何将其运用于论文中以获得更高分数。
1. Why Terminology Matters | 为什么术语很重要？
AQA Philosophy examiners look for candidates who can correctly deploy subject-specific vocabulary. Using ‘a priori knowledge’ instead of ‘knowledge without experience’ immediately signals conceptual clarity. More importantly, many questions hinge on distinguishing subtly different terms, such as validity versus soundness or absolutism versus relativism. Misusing them can cost a full grade boundary.
AQA 哲学考官青睐能正确使用学科特有词汇的考生。用“先验知识”而不是“无需经验的知识”，能立刻体现概念清晰度。更重要的是，许多考题正是围绕区分细微差别的术语而设，如有效性与可靠性、绝对主义与相对主义。混淆它们可能导致整级分数下滑。
2. Epistemology Key Terms | 认识论核心术语
A priori knowledge is independent of sense experience – think of 2+2=4, known by reason alone. The memory cue: ‘a priori’ sounds like ‘prior’ to experience.
先验知识独立于感官经验——想想 2+2=4，仅凭理性即可知晓。记忆提示：“先验”听起来就像“先于”经验。
A posteriori knowledge depends on experience, such as knowing that it is raining outside. Think ‘post’ – after experience.
后验知识依赖于经验，例如知道外面下雨了。想想“后”——在经验之后。
Empiricism claims that all knowledge ultimately comes from sensory experience (Locke’s ‘blank slate’). The root ’empir-‘ relates to experiment.
经验主义声称一切知识最终都来自感官经验（洛克的“白板说”）。词根“empir-”与实验相关。
Rationalism holds that reason is the primary source of knowledge, and we can have innate ideas. Remember ‘ratio’ – reason.
理性主义认为理性是知识的主要来源，我们可能拥有天赋观念。记住“ratio”——理性。
Justified true belief: the classical tripartite definition of knowledge. For something to count as knowledge, it must be a belief that is both true and for which you have justification. The mnemonic: ‘JTB taxi’ – Justified, True, Belief.
确证的真信念：知识的三要素经典定义。某事物要成为知识，它必须是信念，且为真，并有充分理据。助记：“JTB 出租车”——Justified, True, Belief。
Scepticism is the view that knowledge is impossible or very limited. Global sceptics even doubt the external world. Think of ‘sceptic’ as a person who always questions.
怀疑论认为知识不可能或非常有限。全面怀疑论者甚至质疑外部世界。将“怀疑论者”想象成一个总是提问的人。
3. Metaphysics & Philosophy of Religion Terms | 形而上学与宗教哲学术语
Theism, atheism, agnosticism: belief in God, belief there is no God, and suspension of judgement due to lack of evidence. Cue: ‘a-theism’ = without theism; ‘a-gnostic’ = without knowledge.
有神论、无神论、不可知论：相信神存在、相信无神、因证据不足而悬置判断。提示：“a-theism”即无神；“a-gnostic”即不可知。
Omnipotent (all-powerful), omniscient (all-knowing), omnibenevolent (all-good). These are central to the problem of evil. The prefix ‘omni-‘ means all. Remember: potent = power, scient = knowledge, benevolent = good.
全能、全知、全善。这些是恶的问题的核心。“omni-”前缀意为“全”。记忆：potent 力量，scient 知识，benevolent 善。
The problem of evil: if God is all-powerful, all-knowing, and all-good, why does evil exist? The logical version argues that the existence of any evil makes such a God logically impossible. Define ‘evil’ carefully: moral evil (caused by human free will) and natural evil (earthquakes, disease).
恶的问题：如果上帝全能、全知、全善，恶为何存在？逻辑版本论证任何恶的存在都使得此等上帝在逻辑上不可能。仔细定义“恶”：道德之恶（由人类自由意志导致）与自然之恶（地震、疾病）。
Design argument (teleological): the universe’s complexity and apparent design point to a designer – God. Paley’s watch analogy is iconic. Remember ‘teleology’ – from ‘telos’ (purpose).
设计论证（目的论）：宇宙的复杂性和表面上的设计指向一位设计者——上帝。佩利的手表类比十分经典。记住“目的论”——源自“telos”（目标）。
Cosmological argument: everything has a cause, so there must be a First Cause (Aquinas). Distinguish the Kalam version (the universe began to exist) from Aquinas’s Unmoved Mover.
宇宙论论证：凡事皆有因，故必有第一因（阿奎那）。区分卡拉姆版本（宇宙开始存在）与阿奎那的不动之推动者。
Ontological argument: Anselm attempts to prove God’s existence from the very concept of a ‘being than which nothing greater can be conceived’. It is an a priori argument, so remember ‘ontology’ means ‘study of being’.
本体论论证：安瑟伦试图从“无法设想出比之更伟大的存有”这一概念本身证明上帝存在。此为先验论证，记住“本体论”意即“存在之研究”。
4. Ethics Key Terms | 伦理学核心术语
Utilitarianism: the moral theory that the right action is the one that maximises overall happiness or pleasure. Bentham’s hedonic calculus measures pleasure, while Mill distinguishes higher and lower pleasures. Recall ‘utility’ means usefulness – the greatest happiness for the greatest number.
功利主义：正确的行为是能够最大化总体幸福或快乐的行为。边沁的快乐计算衡量快乐，密尔则区分高级与低级快乐。记住“功利”意为最大多数人的最大幸福。
Deontology: duty-based ethics, often associated with Kant’s categorical imperative. An action is right if it can be universalised and respects persons as ends in themselves. ‘Deon’ means duty in Greek.
义务论：基于责任的伦理学，常与康德的定言命令相连。若一个行为可被普遍化并且尊重人为目的本身，则是正当的。“Deon”在希腊语中意为责任。
Virtue ethics: focuses on character and virtues (honesty, courage) rather than rules or consequences. Aristotle’s golden mean – the virtuous midpoint between extremes – is key. Think of ‘virtue’ as moral strength.
德性伦理学：关注品格与德性（诚实、勇敢）而非规则或后果。亚里士多德的中庸之道——即极端之间的有德性中点——是关键。将“德性”视为道德力量。
Absolutism vs relativism: absolutism holds that some moral rules are universally true regardless of culture or opinion; relativism claims morality is dependent on cultural or individual perspectives. You can remember ‘absolutism’ by thinking of ‘absolute’ – unchanging.
绝对主义 vs 相对主义：绝对主义认为某些道德规则放之四海而皆准，无关文化或观点；相对主义则声称道德取决于文化或个人视角。用“绝对”一词记“绝对主义”——不变。
Moral realism vs anti-realism: realists believe moral facts exist independently of us (e.g., “murder is wrong” is objectively true). Anti-realists deny this, seeing morality as a human construct. Cue: realism = real moral facts.
道德实在论 vs 反实在论：实在论者相信道德事实独立于我们而存在（如“谋杀是错的”客观上为真）。反实在论者否认此点，视道德为人类建构。提示：实在论 = 真实的道德事实。
5. Philosophy of Mind | 心灵哲学关键术语
Dualism: the view that mind and body are distinct substances. Descartes’ substance dualism posits that the mind is immaterial and the body physical. Think ‘dual’ for two.
二元论：认为心灵与身体是两种不同的实体。笛卡尔的实体二元论主张心灵是非物质的，身体是物质的。用“dual”（二）来记忆。
Materialism/physicalism: the mind is entirely physical – mental states are brain states. The identity theory claims thoughts are identical to brain processes. ‘Matter’ is key.
唯物主义/物理主义：心灵完全是物质的——心理状态即大脑状态。同一论声称思想等同脑过程。“物质”是关键。
Qualia: the subjective, qualitative aspects of conscious experience – such as the redness of red or the painfulness of pain. Qualia are often used as an argument against physicalism. The word sounds like ‘quality’.
感受质：意识经验的主观、质性层面——比如红色的红或者疼痛的痛感。感受质常被用来反驳物理主义。该词发音接近“quality”。
Functionalism: mental states are defined by their causal roles – what they do, not what they are made of. For example, pain is whatever state plays the ‘pain role’ (caused by injury, causing wincing). It allows multiple realizability (aliens could feel pain).
功能主义：心理状态由其因果角色界定——即它们做什么，而非由什么构成。例如，疼痛是任何扮演“疼痛角色”的状态（由损伤引起，导致退缩）。它允许多元实现（外星人也能感受疼痛）。
6. Logic & Argumentation | 逻辑与论证术语
Deductive argument: aims to provide logically conclusive support for its conclusion. If the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. Think ‘deduce’ – to derive necessarily.
演绎论证：旨在为结论提供逻辑上决定性的支持。若前提为真，结论必然为真。想象“演绎”即必然推出。
Inductive argument: provides probable support – the conclusion is likely but not guaranteed. All cosmological arguments are inductive. The cue: ‘induction’ leads to a high probability.
归纳论证：提供或然性支持——结论很可能但不保证。所有宇宙论论证都是归纳的。提示：“归纳”通向高概率。
Valid and sound: a valid argument is one where if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true (form is correct). A sound argument is a valid argument with all true premises. Memory: valid = correct structure; sound = valid + true premises.
有效与可靠：有效论证即如果前提为真，结论必然为真（形式正确）。可靠论证是有效且所有前提皆为真的论证。记忆：有效 = 结构正确；可靠 = 有效 + 真前提。
Fallacy: a flaw in reasoning. Begging the question (circular reasoning) assumes the conclusion in the premises. Ad hominem attacks the person, not the argument. Remember ‘fallacy’ as a false step.
谬误：推理缺陷。窃取论点（循环论证）在前提中预设了结论。人身攻击攻击人而非论点。将“谬误”记作错误的一步。
7. Etymology & Mnemonic Techniques | 词源与速记技巧
Many philosophical terms come from Latin or Greek. Learning roots dramatically speeds up memorisation. For instance, ‘teleology’ (telos = purpose, logos = study) – the study of purpose. ‘Epistemology’ (episteme = knowledge, logos = study) – the study of knowledge. ‘Omnipotent’ (omni = all, potens = powerful). Use flashcards with the root breakdown to lock in meaning.
许多哲学术语源自拉丁语或希腊语。学习词根能极大加速记忆。例如，“目的论”（teleology：telos=目的，logos=学问）即目的之研究。“认识论”（epistemology：episteme=知识，logos=学问）即知识之研究。“全能”（omnipotent：omni=全，potens=强大）。使用带有词根拆解的抽认卡来锁定含义。
Create acronyms for lists. The tripartite definition of knowledge becomes JTB (Justified True Belief). The three omni-attributes of God: OOO (Omnipotent, Omniscient, Omnibenevolent). For the design argument features, use ‘POET’: Purpose, Order, Evidence of design, Teleology. Mnemonic stories also work – imagine a thinker named ‘JTB’ driving a taxi.
为列表创建首字母缩写。知识的三要素定义变成 JTB（确证的真信念）。上帝的三大全属：OOO（全能、全知、全善）。设计论证特征用“POET”：目的、秩序、设计证据、目的论。助记故事也有效——想象一个叫 JTB 的司机开出租车。
8. Commonly Confused Terms | 常见混淆术语辨析
| Easily Confused / 易混淆 | Key Distinction / 关键区别 | Memory Hack / 速记窍门 |
|---|---|---|
| Valid vs Sound | Validity is about logical form; soundness requires true premises as well. | Sound has the ‘sound’ of truth – it is valid AND true. |
| A priori vs A posteriori | Independent of experience vs dependent on experience. | ‘Prior’ to experience; ‘post’ after experience. |
| Absolutism vs Relativism | Universal moral rules vs context-dependent morality. | Absolute = always; relative = related to situation. |
| Deductively valid argument vs Inductive strength | Deductive conclusion must follow; inductive only probably follows. | Deduct = definite; induct = likely. |
| Moral evil vs Natural evil | Caused by human free choices vs caused by nature. | Moral = man-made; natural = nature’s workings. |
| Act Utilitarianism vs Rule Utilitarianism | Each act judged by its consequences vs follow rules that maximise utility generally. | Act = individual action; rule = general guidelines. |
9. Quick-Reference Glossary | 术语速查表
Use this condensed bilingual glossary for last-minute revision. Test yourself by covering the definition column.
使用这份浓缩中英双语词汇表进行最后冲刺复习。遮住定义栏自测。
| Term | Definition / 定义 |
|---|---|
| A priori | Knowledge independent of experience / 先验知识 |
| Empiricism | All knowledge comes from sensory experience / 经验主义 |
| Rationalism | Reason is the primary source of knowledge / 理性主义 |
| Scepticism | The view that knowledge is impossible or limited / 怀疑论 |
| Omnipotent | All-powerful / 全能 |
| Utilitarianism | Maximising overall happiness / 功利主义 |
| Categorical Imperative | Kant’s universal moral law: act only on maxims universalisable / 定言命令 |
| Virtue Ethics | Focus on character and virtues / 德性伦理学 |
| Dualism | Mind and body are distinct substances / 二元论 |
| Materialism | Mind is entirely physical / 唯物主义 |
| Valid argument | If premises true, conclusion must be true / 有效论证 |
10. Applying Terminology in Exam Answers | 在答题中应用术语
Never just drop a term; explain it and connect it to the question. For a 12-mark question on the problem of evil, begin with: ‘The logical problem of evil states that the existence of any evil appears incompatible with an omnipotent, omniscient, and omnibenevolent God. This is a deductive challenge…’ Then define each omni-attribute and show how you are using ‘deductive’ precisely. Every term earns credit when correctly defined.
不要仅仅丢出一个术语；要解释它并与问题联系起来。面对关于恶的问题的12分题目，这样开头：“恶的逻辑问题指出任何恶的存在似乎与一位全能、全知、全善的上帝不相容。这是一种演绎挑战……”然后定义每一个全属并展示你如何准确使用“演绎”一词。每个正确定义的术语都能得分。
Use ‘evaluation terminology’ terms like ‘this argument is valid but not sound because premise 2 is false’. Show you know the difference between an a priori argument (ontological) and an a posteriori argument (design). In ethics, contrast ‘deontological’ and ‘teleological’ approaches explicitly. This signals synoptic thinking.
使用“评估术语”，比如“该论证有效但不可靠，因为前提2为假”。表明你了解先验论证（本体论论证）与后验论证（设计论证）的区别。在伦理学中，明确对比“义务论”与“目的论”路径。这体现了融会贯通的思维。
11. Self-Testing & Active Recall | 自测与主动回忆
After studying this guide, write each term on a flashcard with the definition on the back. Shuffle and practise defining them out loud. Then try the reverse: look at the definition and recall the term. Use the ‘Leitner system’ to space repetition. Additionally, create mind maps linking terms together: ‘Epistemology’ in centre, branching to ‘a priori’, ‘rationalism’, ‘JTB’, ‘scepticism’. The brain remembers connections better than isolated facts.
学习完本指南后，将每个术语写在抽认卡正面，背面写定义。打乱顺序并大声练习定义。然后反向练习：看定义回忆术语。使用“莱特纳系统”间隔重复。此外，制作思维导图将术语关联起来：中心写“认识论”，分支到“先验”、“理性主义”、“JTB”、“怀疑论”。大脑对联结的记忆优于孤立事实。
Published by TutorHao | Philosophy Revision Series | aleveler.com
更多咨询请联系16621398022（同微信）
屏轩国际教育cambridge primary/secondary checkpoint, cat4, ukiset,ukcat,igcse,alevel,PAT,STEP,MAT, ibdp,ap,ssat,sat,sat2课程辅导，国外大学本科硕士研究生博士课程论文辅导