📚 Year 11 Edexcel German: Unit Test Mock Paper Analysis | Year 11 Edexcel 德语：单元测试模拟卷解析
Mastering the Year 11 Edexcel German unit test requires more than just vocabulary knowledge; it demands a clear understanding of the exam format, common pitfalls, and effective answering techniques. This article breaks down a typical mock paper, offering detailed analysis and practical tips to boost your confidence and grades.
掌握 Year 11 Edexcel 德语单元测试，不仅需要词汇知识，还需要清晰理解考试形式、常见错误和有效的答题技巧。本文将解析一份典型的模拟试卷，提供详细分析和实用建议，帮助提升你的信心和成绩。
1. Overview of the Mock Paper | 模拟卷概览
The Edexcel GCSE German unit test typically includes four skill areas: listening, reading, speaking and writing, but a mock paper often focuses on reading, grammar, translation and writing. Our sample paper contains a reading comprehension section, two grammar gap-fill exercises, two translation tasks and three writing tasks of varying lengths. The total time allowed is 60 minutes, and each question carries marks as indicated on the paper. Understanding the weight of each section helps you manage your time wisely.
Edexcel GCSE 德语单元测试通常涵盖听力、阅读、口语和写作四个技能领域，但模拟卷往往集中在阅读、语法、翻译和写作。我们的样卷包括一个阅读理解部分、两个语法填空练习、两个翻译任务和三个不同长度的写作任务。考试总时间为 60 分钟，每道题分数已在试卷上标明。了解各部分的比重有助于合理分配时间。
In the reading section, you will encounter three texts on the same topic – perhaps ‘Freizeit und Hobbys’ (free time and hobbies). Questions progress from multiple choice to true/false/not mentioned and finally to short-answer responses in German. Each text becomes slightly harder, so the first one is a confidence builder, while the third demands careful inference.
在阅读部分，你会看到三篇主题相同的短文——可能是 ‘Freizeit und Hobbys’（休闲与爱好）。问题从选择题逐渐过渡到正确/错误/未提及，最后是简短的德语回答。每篇文本难度递增，因此第一篇用来建立信心，而第三篇需要仔细推理。
The grammar gap-fill exercises isolate key structures such as articles in the correct case and verb conjugations in present, perfect and future tenses. Translation tasks are both into and out of German, and the writing section mirrors the real GCSE: a 40-word message, a 90-word structured task and a 150-word open-ended response. Each segment tests not only accuracy but also range of vocabulary and complexity of sentences.
语法填空练习专门考查关键结构，例如冠词的正确格、动词在现在时、完成时和将来时的变位。翻译任务既有英译德也有德译英，而写作部分模拟真实 GCSE：一则 40 词的短信息、一项 90 词的结构化任务和一篇 150 词的开放性回答。每个环节不仅考查准确性，还考查词汇量和句子结构的复杂度。
2. Reading Comprehension: Core Strategies | 阅读理解：核心策略
Before reading the text, always scan the questions and underline the keywords. For a question like ‘Was macht Anna am Wochenende?’ (What does Anna do at the weekend?), the keyword is ‘Wochenende’. As you read, look for ‘Samstag’, ‘Sonntag’ or ‘am Wochenende’ to find the answer. This technique prevents you from getting lost in irrelevant details.
在阅读文本之前，一定要先浏览问题并圈出关键词。对于像 ‘Was macht Anna am Wochenende?’（Anna 周末做什么？）这样的问题，关键词是 ‘Wochenende’。阅读时，寻找 ‘Samstag’、’Sonntag’ 或 ‘am Wochenende’ 来定位答案。这种方法能防止你迷失在无关细节中。
Pay close attention to negative expressions and qualifiers. Words like ‘nicht’, ‘kein’, ‘nie’ (never), ‘nur’ (only) and ‘fast’ (almost) can completely change the meaning. A sentence such as ‘Ich gehe fast jeden Tag ins Schwimmbad’ means the person goes swimming almost every day, but not necessarily every day. Misreading ‘fast’ could lead to a wrong true/false answer.
特别注意否定表达和限定词。像 ‘nicht’、’kein’、’nie’（从不）、’nur’（仅仅）和 ‘fast’（几乎）这样的词能彻底改变意思。比如 ‘Ich gehe fast jeden Tag ins Schwimmbad’ 表示几乎每天都去游泳，但不一定每天。误读 ‘fast’ 可能导致判断正确或错误时出错。
When answering ‘true, false or not mentioned’ questions, remember that ‘not mentioned’ means the text neither confirms nor denies the statement. Do not use your own knowledge of the world; rely only on what is written. If the text says ‘Anna spielt gern Tennis’, but you are asked whether she plays tennis every weekend, the correct answer is ‘not mentioned’ unless frequency is given.
在回答“正确、错误或未提及”类问题时，切记“未提及”意味着文本既没有证实也没有否定该陈述。不要依赖你对世界的了解，只依据文本内容。如果文本说 ‘Anna spielt gern Tennis’（Anna 喜欢打网球），但问题问是否她每个周末都打，那么除非提到了频率，否则正确答案应为“未提及”。
3. Reading: Dealing with Unknown Words | 阅读：应对生词
You will inevitably encounter unfamiliar vocabulary in the mock paper. Instead of panicking, use the context and the logic of compound nouns. For instance, if you see ‘Lieblingsbeschäftigung’, break it down: ‘Liebling’ (favourite) + ‘Beschäftigung’ (occupation/activity) = favourite pastime. Similarly, ‘Jugendherberge’ splits into ‘Jugend’ (youth) + ‘Herberge’ (hostel) – a youth hostel. Recognising common prefixes and suffixes like ‘un-‘, ‘-heit’, ‘-keit’, ‘-ung’ gives you a huge advantage.
在模拟卷中，你难免会遇到不熟悉的词汇。不要惊慌，要利用上下文和复合词的逻辑。例如，看到 ‘Lieblingsbeschäftigung’ 时把它分解：’Liebling’（最喜欢的）+ ‘Beschäftigung’（活动）等于最喜爱的消遣。同样，’Jugendherberge’ 拆分为 ‘Jugend’（青年）+ ‘Herberge’（宿舍）就是青年旅舍。识别常见前缀和后缀，如 ‘un-‘, ‘-heit’, ‘-keit’, ‘-ung’，会让你获得巨大优势。
Another powerful strategy is to identify cognates – words that look similar in English and German. ‘Information’, ‘Museum’, ‘Familie’, ‘Telefonnummer’ are obvious, but also look out for partial cognates like ‘interessant’ (interesting) or ‘fantastisch’ (fantastic). Be cautious, however, with false friends: ‘aktuell’ means current, not actual; ‘sensibel’ means sensitive, not sensible. Keeping a list of false friends can save you from embarrassment in the exam.
另一个强有力的策略是识别同源词——英语和德语中看起来相似的词。’Information’、’Museum’、’Familie’、’Telefonnummer’ 很明显，但也要留意部分同源词，如 ‘interessant’（有趣的）或 ‘fantastisch’（奇妙的）。然而要当心假朋友：’aktuell’ 表示当前的而非实际的；’sensibel’ 表示敏感的而非明智的。列一份假朋友清单能让你在考试中避免尴尬。
Finally, if a word still baffles you, try to infer its meaning by the overall tone and the words around it. For example, ‘Er war sehr enttäuscht, weil er die Prüfung nicht bestanden hatte’ – even if you don’t know ‘enttäuscht’, the fact that he didn’t pass the exam suggests a negative emotion. The word means ‘disappointed’. Practice this skill with past papers to become a more confident reader.
最后，如果某个词仍然让你困惑，试着通过整体语气和周围的词来推断其意。例如，’Er war sehr enttäuscht, weil er die Prüfung nicht bestanden hatte’——即使你不知道 ‘enttäuscht’，他没有通过考试这一事实暗示了一种负面情绪。这个词的意思是“失望”。通过历年真题练习这一技能，你会成为更自信的阅读者。
4. Grammar Focus: Cases and Prepositions | 语法重点：格与介词
Accuracy with cases – nominative, accusative, dative and genitive – is essential for the gap-fill and writing tasks. A typical mock question asks you to complete ‘Ich habe d___ Schlüssel (m.) vergessen.’ You must recognise that ‘Schlüssel’ is masculine and after ‘haben’ (for the perfect tense) the direct object is accusative, so the missing ending is ‘en’: ‘den Schlüssel’. Always identify the verb and whether it takes a direct object or a preposition that governs a specific case.
格的准确性——主格、宾格、与格和属格——对填空和写作任务至关重要。一道典型的模拟题会要求你完成 ‘Ich habe d___ Schlüssel (m.) vergessen.’ 你必须意识到 ‘Schlüssel’ 是阳性，在完成时中 ‘haben’ 的宾语是宾格，因此缺失的结尾是 ‘en’：’den Schlüssel’。一定要先识别动词，判断它是否带有直接宾语，或者是否有支配特定格的介词。
Prepositions are often tested. Two-way prepositions like ‘in’, ‘an’, ‘auf’, ‘unter’ take dative when indicating location (wo?) and accusative when indicating motion (wohin?). For instance, ‘Ich lege das Buch auf den Tisch’ (accusative) vs. ‘Das Buch liegt auf dem Tisch’ (dative). Dative-only prepositions such as ‘mit’, ‘von’, ‘zu’, ‘bei’, ‘seit’ always require the dative, regardless of motion. In a gap-fill, ‘Ich fahre mit d___ Auto’ demands ‘dem’ because ‘mit’ always governs dative.
介词经常是考查点。双向介词如 ‘in’, ‘an’, ‘auf’, ‘unter’ 在表示位置（在哪里？）时支配与格，表示移动方向（去哪里？）时支配宾格。例如：’Ich lege das Buch auf den Tisch’（宾格）对比 ‘Das Buch liegt auf dem Tisch’（与格）。只支配与格的介词如 ‘mit’, ‘von’, ‘zu’, ‘bei’, ‘seit’ 无论移动与否都带与格。在填空题中，’Ich fahre mit d___ Auto’ 需要 ‘dem’，因为 ‘mit’ 始终支配与格。
Adjective endings depend on case, gender and the article (definite, indefinite or no article). In the sentence ‘Der nette Lehrer hilft dem neuen Schüler’, ‘nette’ follows the nominative masculine definite article, so it takes -e; ‘neuen’ follows the dative masculine definite article, so it takes -en. A revision table can be helpful:
形容词词尾取决于格、性和冠词（定冠词、不定冠词或无冠词）。在句子 ‘Der nette Lehrer hilft dem neuen Schüler’ 中，’nette’ 跟在主格阳性定冠词后，故用 -e；’neuen’ 跟在与格阳性定冠词后，故用 -en。一张复习表会很有帮助：
| Case | Masculine (der) | Feminine (die) | Neuter (das) | Plural (die) |
| Nominative | -e | -e | -e | -en |
| Accusative | -en | -e | -e | -en |
| Dative | -en | -en | -en | -en |
This table shows adjective endings after the definite article. Having these patterns clear in your mind allows you to tackle any gap-fill with confidence.
上表显示了定冠词后的形容词词尾。将这些模式牢记于心，你就能自信地应对任何填空题目。
5. Grammar Focus: Tenses and Word Order | 语法重点：时态与语序
German word order often goes wrong in the mock exam. In main clauses, the conjugated verb is always the second idea – not necessarily the second word. For example, ‘Am Wochenende gehe ich ins Kino’ – the verb ‘gehe’ is the second element, after the time phrase. If you start with ‘Ich’, the sentence becomes ‘Ich gehe am Wochenende ins Kino’. Rule number one: verb second. In subordinate clauses (after ‘weil’, ‘dass’, ‘wenn’), the verb moves to the end: ‘Ich bleibe zu Hause, weil ich krank bin.’ Here ‘bin’ is at the very end.
德语的语序在模拟考试中经常出错。在主句中，变位动词总是第二个成分——不一定是第二个词。例如，’Am Wochenende gehe ich ins Kino’——动词 ‘gehe’ 位于时间短语之后，是第二个要素。如果以 ‘Ich’ 开头，句子变为 ‘Ich gehe am Wochenende ins Kino’。规则一：动词第二位。在从句中（在 ‘weil’, ‘dass’, ‘wenn’ 等之后），动词移到末尾：’Ich bleibe zu Hause, weil ich krank bin.’ 这里的 ‘bin’ 处在最末尾。
Two tenses that appear frequently are the perfect (spoken past) and the future. The perfect tense is formed with ‘haben’ or ‘sein’ + past participle. Most verbs use ‘haben’, but verbs of motion or change of state use ‘sein’, e.g. ‘Ich bin nach Berlin gefahren.’ In translation tasks, if the English sentence says ‘I went to Berlin’, you must use ‘bin … gefahren’, not ‘habe … gefahren’. The past participle of regular verbs is ge + stem + t (machen → gemacht), but many common verbs are irregular: sehen → gesehen, schreiben → geschrieben. Learn these by heart, as they are often tested.
两种常考的时态是完成时（口语中的过去）和将来时。完成时由 ‘haben’ 或 ‘sein’ + 过去分词构成。大多数动词用 ‘haben’，但表示移动或状态变化的动词用 ‘sein’，例如 ‘Ich bin nach Berlin gefahren.’ 在翻译任务中，如果英语句子说 ‘I went to Berlin’，你必须用 ‘bin … gefahren’ 而非 ‘habe … gefahren’。规则动词的过去分词是 ge + 词干 + t（machen → gemacht），但许多常用动词是不规则的：sehen → gesehen, schreiben → geschrieben。务必背熟这些，因为它们常常考查。
The future tense is straightforward: use ‘werden’ + infinitive. For example, ‘Ich werde nächstes Jahr eine Weltreise machen.’ Note that the infinitive goes to the end of the clause. In the gap-fill, you might see ‘Wir ________ (werden) bald ins Kino gehen.’ The correct form is ‘werden’ (wir werden). Remember to conjugate ‘werden’ correctly: ich werde, du wirst, er/sie/es wird, wir werden, ihr werdet, sie/Sie werden.
将来时很简单：用 ‘werden’ + 不定式。例如，’Ich werde nächstes Jahr eine Weltreise machen.’ 注意不定式放在从句末尾。在填空题中，你可能会看到 ‘Wir ________ (werden) bald ins Kino gehen.’ 正确形式是 ‘werden’（wir werden）。记住要正确变位 ‘werden’：ich werde, du wirst, er/sie/es wird, wir werden, ihr werdet, sie/Sie werden。
6. Translation: English to German | 翻译：英译德
The English-to-German translation tests your ability to produce accurate and idiomatic German. A typical sentence might be: ‘My sister and I are going to the cinema because the new film is very exciting.’ Begin by breaking it into manageable chunks. ‘My sister and I’ → ‘Meine Schwester und ich’; ‘are going’ → ‘gehen’ (present tense often used for near future in German); ‘to the cinema’ → ‘ins Kino’; ‘because the new film is very exciting’ → ‘weil der neue Film sehr spannend ist’. Notice ‘ist’ at the end. Assemble: ‘Meine Schwester und ich gehen ins Kino, weil der neue Film sehr spannend ist.’ Check case and gender: ‘der neue Film’ is nominative after ‘weil’; no change needed.
英译德测验你生成准确而地道的德语的能力。典型的句子可能是：’My sister and I are going to the cinema because the new film is very exciting.’ 首先把它拆分成可处理的语块。’My sister and I’ → ‘Meine Schwester und ich’；’are going’ → ‘gehen’（德语中常用现在时表示不久的将来）；’to the cinema’ → ‘ins Kino’；’because the new film is very exciting’ → ‘weil der neue Film sehr spannend ist’。注意 ‘ist’ 在末尾。组装起来：’Meine Schwester und ich gehen ins Kino, weil der neue Film sehr spannend ist.’ 检查格和性：’der neue Film’ 在 ‘weil’ 后是主格，无需变化。
A common trap is the translation of ‘when’ – it can be ‘wann’ (question word) or ‘wenn/als’ (conjunction). In statements, ‘als’ is used for single events in the past, ‘wenn’ for repeated events or present/future. So ‘When I was 10, I visited Berlin’ → ‘Als ich 10 war, habe ich Berlin besucht.’ ‘When it rains, I stay at home’ → ‘Wenn es regnet, bleibe ich zu Hause.’ Many candidates lose marks by using ‘wann’ in a clause. Always ask yourself: is this a question about a time, or a description of a circumstance?
一个常见的陷阱是翻译 ‘when’——它可能是 ‘wann’（疑问词）或 ‘wenn/als’（连词）。在陈述句中，’als’ 用于过去的一次性事件，’wenn’ 用于重复事件或现在/将来。因此 ‘When I was 10, I visited Berlin’ → ‘Als ich 10 war, habe ich Berlin besucht.’ ‘When it rains, I stay at home’ → ‘Wenn es regnet, bleibe ich zu Hause.’ 很多考生因为在从句中用 ‘wann’ 而失分。一定要问自己：这是关于时间的提问，还是描述一种情况？
Pay special attention to the position of ‘nicht’ for negation. To negate a whole sentence, ‘nicht’ goes at the end: ‘Ich kann heute nicht kommen.’ But if negating a specific element, ‘nicht’ goes directly before it: ‘Nicht ich habe das gemacht, sondern meine Schwester.’ In translation, ‘I do not like football’ becomes ‘Ich mag Fußball nicht’ – the ‘nicht’ follows the object. Practice this word order deliberately; it is a very common correction point.
特别注意 ‘nicht’ 的位置来表示否定。要否定整个句子，’nicht’ 放在末尾：’Ich kann heute nicht kommen.’ 但如果要否定特定成分，’nicht’ 直接放在该成分前：’Nicht ich habe das gemacht, sondern meine Schwester.’ 在翻译中，’I do not like football’ 变成 ‘Ich mag Fußball nicht’——’nicht’ 跟在宾语之后。要有意识地练习这一语序；它是极常见的扣分点。
7. Translation: German to English | 翻译：德译英
This direction seems easier but demands precision. A sentence like ‘Obwohl das Wetter schlecht war, sind wir an den Strand gegangen’ should be unpacked: ‘Obwohl’ = although; ‘das Wetter’ = the weather; ‘schlecht’ = bad; ‘war’ = was; ‘sind … gegangen’ = went. The natural English rendering is ‘Although the weather was bad, we went to the beach.’ The challenge is often in the subordinate clause structure: do not separate the ‘although’ clause unnaturally. Always aim for natural, fluent English.
这个方向看似更简单，但要求精确。像 ‘Obwohl das Wetter schlecht war, sind wir an den Strand gegangen’ 这样的句子应这样拆解：’Obwohl’ = although；’das Wetter’ = the weather；’schlecht’ = bad；’war’ = was；’sind … gegangen’ = went。自然地道的英语表达是：’Although the weather was bad, we went to the beach.’ 难点常常在于从句结构：不要不自然地拆分 ‘although’ 从句。始终力求自然流畅的英语。
Beware of the tricky separable verb in the perfect tense. ‘Wir haben den ganzen Abend ferngesehen.’ ‘Fernsehen’ splits into ‘fern’ + ‘sehen’, past participle ‘ferngesehen’. The prefix ‘fern’ is stressed. In English, simply ‘We watched television the whole evening.’ Over-literal translation such as ‘We have far seen’ is nonsense. Always identify the infinitive and think of the whole verb’s meaning, not the parts separately. Look out for ‘aufstehen’, ‘anfangen’, ‘mitkommen’ – they all behave similarly.
当心完成时中棘手的可分动词。’Wir haben den ganzen Abend ferngesehen.’ ‘Fernsehen’ 分为 ‘fern’ + ‘sehen’，过去分词 ‘ferngesehen’。前缀 ‘fern’ 重读。英语只需说 ‘We watched television the whole evening.’ 过于字面的翻译如 ‘We have far seen’ 是无意义的。要始终识别不定式，思考整个动词的意思，而不是拆开后的各部分。留意 ‘aufstehen’, ‘anfangen’, ‘mitkommen’——它们都类似。
Sometimes the German text uses an idiom or a colloquial phrase. ‘Es ist mir egal’ means ‘I don’t care’ or ‘It’s all the same to me’, not ‘It is to me equal’. ‘Das schaffe ich!’ means ‘I can manage it!’ or ‘I’ll do it!’. To score full marks, your translation must capture the tone and intention, not just the dictionary meanings. Read the sentence aloud in your head and ask, ‘Does this sound like something an English person would say?’
有时德语文本会使用习语或口语表达。’Es ist mir egal’ 的意思是 ‘I don’t care’ 或 ‘我无所谓’，而不是 ‘It is to me equal’。’Das schaffe ich!’ 的意思是 ‘I can manage it!’ 或 ‘我会做到的！’。要得满分，你的翻译必须捕捉到语气和意图，而不仅仅是字典释义。在心里把句子读出来，并问自己：“这听上去像一个英国人会说的话吗？”
8. Writing: Short Message (40 Words) | 写作：短消息（40词）
The 40-word task usually asks you to write a short message, for example an email to a friend inviting them to a party. You must cover all bullet points, normally three to four. A typical prompt: ‘Write an email to your German friend Max. Say: when the party is, where it takes place, what he should bring.’ Stick strictly to these points. Do not ramble. The word count is tight, so every word must count. Use simple but accurate sentences.
40 词的任务通常要求你写一则短消息，比如给朋友写一封邀请他们参加派对的邮件。你必须覆盖所有要点，通常是三到四个。一个典型提示：“给你的德国朋友 Max 写一封邮件。说明：派对在何时，在哪里举行，他应该带什么。”严格遵守这些要点。不要东拉西扯。字数很紧，因此每个词都要有价值。使用简单但准确的句子。
Structure your response clearly. Begin with ‘Lieber Max,’ and end with ‘Viele Gruesse’ or ‘Bis dann!’. For the content: ‘Meine Party ist am Samstag um 19 Uhr. Sie findet bei mir zu Hause statt. Bitte bring etwas zu trinken mit.’ That’s exactly 14 words and hits all points. Check grammar: ‘am Samstag’ is dative, ‘um 19 Uhr’ is time, ‘bei mir zu Hause’ uses dative after ‘bei’, ‘bring … mit’ is separable verb imperative (du form ‘bring mit’ → ‘Bitte bring … mit’). Commas and full stops are essential.
清晰地组织你的回复。以 ‘Lieber Max,’ 开头，以 ‘Viele Gruesse’ 或 ‘Bis dann!’ 结尾。内容方面：’Meine Party ist am Samstag um 19 Uhr. Sie findet bei mir zu Hause statt. Bitte bring etwas zu trinken mit.’ 这恰好 14 个词，覆盖了所有要点。检查语法：’am Samstag’ 是与格，’um 19 Uhr’ 是时间，’bei mir zu Hause’ 在 ‘bei’ 后用与格，’bring … mit’ 是可分动词的命令式（du 形式 ‘bring mit’ → ‘Bitte bring … mit’）。逗号和句号是必不可少的。
Common mistakes include using the formal ‘Sie’ instead of ‘du’ when writing to a friend. The prompt says ‘your German friend’, so always use ‘du’ and ‘ihr’. Another pitfall is writing over 40 words – you will not lose marks for exceeding slightly, but if you write too much, you might include unnecessary errors. Count your words as you draft. In German, compound words like ‘Geburtstagsparty’ count as one word. Use this to your advantage: ‘Geburtstagsparty’ instead of ‘Party zum Geburtstag’ saves space.
常见错误包括在给朋友写信时用了正式的 ‘Sie’ 而非 ‘du’。提示写的是“你的德国朋友”，因此始终用 ‘du’ 和 ‘ihr’。另一个陷阱是超过 40 词——轻微超词不会扣分，但写多了可能引入不必要的错误。起草时数一数字数。在德语中，复合词如 ‘Geburtstagsparty’ 计数为一个词。利用这一点：用 ‘Geburtstagsparty’ 代替 ‘Party zum Geburtstag’ 可以节省空间。
9. Writing: Longer Text (90–150 Words) | 写作：较长文本（90–150词）
The 90-word and 150-word tasks require more ambitious language. For the 90-word task, you might be asked to describe a recent holiday and give your opinion. A structured approach: paragraph one – where, when, with whom, transport; paragraph two – activities and weather; paragraph three – your opinion and future plans. Use at least two tenses: perfect for what you did, present for your opinion, future or conditional for what you would like to do next. Include at least one subordinate clause with ‘weil’ or ‘dass’.
90 词和 150 词的任务需要更复杂的语言。90 词的任务可能要求你描述最近的一次假期并给出看法。结构化方法：第一段——地点、时间、同伴、交通；第二段——活动和天气；第三段——你的观点和未来计划。至少使用两种时态：完成时描述你做了什么，现在时表达观点，将来时或条件式表达你想做的事。至少包含一个带 ‘weil’ 或 ‘dass’ 的从句。
For the 150-word task, there is often a choice of two questions. One might be an essay on environmental issues, the other a narrative about a memorable event. Choose the one that best showcases your vocabulary. Plan before you write: jot down 5–6 key verbs, 3–4 adjectives, 2 connectives
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