📚 Year 11 Eduqas Science: Formula & Theorem Quick Reference Handbook | Year 11 Eduqas 科学：公式定理速查手册
This quick reference handbook brings together every essential formula, equation and scientific law you need for Year 11 Eduqas Science. Use it alongside your class notes to master calculations in physics, chemistry and biology, and to reinforce your understanding of the key principles that underpin the subject.
这本速查手册汇集了 Year 11 Eduqas 科学课程中所有必备的公式、方程式和科学定律。配合课堂笔记使用，能帮助你熟练掌握物理、化学和生物中的计算，并加深对学科核心原理的理解。
1. Motion and Forces | 运动与力
The speed of an object tells you how far it travels in a given time. The equation is:
v = d ÷ t
where v is speed (m/s), d is distance (m) and t is time (s).
速度表示物体在单位时间内移动的距离。公式为:
v = d ÷ t
其中 v 是速度（米/秒），d 是距离（米），t 是时间（秒）。
Acceleration measures how quickly velocity changes. The equation is:
a = Δv ÷ t
where a is acceleration (m/s²), Δv is change in velocity (m/s) and t is time (s).
加速度表示速度变化的快慢。公式为:
a = Δv ÷ t
其中 a 是加速度（米/秒²），Δv 是速度变化量（米/秒），t 是时间（秒）。
Acceleration can also be calculated from initial velocity (u), final velocity (v) and time: a = (v – u) ÷ t.
加速度也可通过初速度 (u)、末速度 (v) 和时间求得: a = (v – u) ÷ t。
The resultant force on an object is directly proportional to its acceleration. This is summarised by Newton’s second law:
F = m × a
where F is force (N), m is mass (kg) and a is acceleration (m/s²).
物体所受合力与加速度成正比。牛顿第二定律概括为:
F = m × a
其中 F 是力（牛顿），m 是质量（千克），a 是加速度（米/秒²）。
Weight is the force of gravity acting on an object. It is calculated using:
W = m × g
where W is weight (N), m is mass (kg) and g is gravitational field strength (N/kg). On Earth g ≈ 9.8 N/kg.
重量是作用在物体上的重力。计算公式为:
W = m × g
其中 W 是重量（牛顿），m 是质量（千克），g 是引力场强度（牛/千克）。地球表面 g ≈ 9.8 牛/千克。
Momentum quantifies the motion of an object. The equation is:
p = m × v
where p is momentum (kg m/s), m is mass (kg) and v is velocity (m/s). Momentum is always conserved in a closed system.
动量描述物体的运动量。公式为:
p = m × v
其中 p 是动量（千克·米/秒），m 是质量（千克），v 是速度（米/秒）。在封闭系统中动量总是守恒的。
Stopping distance is the sum of thinking distance and braking distance. Though not a single formula, it links directly to speed, reaction time and braking force.
停车距离是思考距离与制动距离之和。虽然没有单一公式，但它与速度、反应时间和制动力直接相关。
2. Energy | 能量
Work is done when a force moves an object. The formula is:
W = F × d
where W is work done (J), F is force (N) and d is distance moved in the direction of the force (m).
力使物体移动就做了功。公式为:
W = F × d
其中 W 是做功（焦耳），F 是力（牛顿），d 是沿力的方向移动的距离（米）。
Kinetic energy depends on mass and speed. It is given by:
Eₖ = ½ m v²
where Eₖ is kinetic energy (J), m is mass (kg) and v is speed (m/s).
动能取决于质量和速度。公式为:
Eₖ = ½ m v²
其中 Eₖ 是动能（焦耳），m 是质量（千克），v 是速度（米/秒）。
Gravitational potential energy stored in an object raised above the ground is calculated by:
Eₚ = m g h
where Eₚ is gravitational potential energy (J), m is mass (kg), g is gravitational field strength (N/kg) and h is height (m).
物体被举高后储存的重力势能计算公式为:
Eₚ = m g h
其中 Eₚ 是重力势能（焦耳），m 是质量（千克），g 是引力场强度（牛/千克），h 是高度（米）。
Power is the rate of doing work or transferring energy. It can be found using:
P = W ÷ t or P = E ÷ t
where P is power (W), W is work done (J), E is energy transferred (J) and t is time (s).
功率是做功或传递能量的速率。可用以下公式:
P = W ÷ t 或 P = E ÷ t
其中 P 是功率（瓦特），W 是做功（焦耳），E 是传递的能量（焦耳），t 是时间（秒）。
Efficiency tells you how much of the input energy is usefully transferred. The equation is:
Efficiency = (useful output energy ÷ total input energy) × 100%
效率表示输入能量中有多少被有效利用。公式为:
效率 = (有效输出能量 ÷ 总输入能量) × 100%
The specific heat capacity of a material can be investigated using the energy transfer relationship:
ΔE = m c Δθ
where ΔE is energy change (J), m is mass (kg), c is specific heat capacity (J/kg °C) and Δθ is temperature change (°C).
物质的比热容可通过能量传递关系进行研究:
ΔE = m c Δθ
其中 ΔE 是能量变化（焦耳），m 是质量（千克），c 是比热容（焦/千克·摄氏度），Δθ 是温度变化（摄氏度）。
3. Electricity | 电学
The amount of charge flowing in a circuit is linked to current and time by:
Q = I × t
where Q is charge (C), I is current (A) and t is time (s).
电路中通过的电荷量与电流和时间的关系为:
Q = I × t
其中 Q 是电荷量（库仑），I 是电流（安培），t 是时间（秒）。
The potential difference across a component is related to current and resistance by Ohm’s law:
V = I × R
where V is potential difference (V), I is current (A) and R is resistance (Ω).
元件两端的电势差与电流和电阻的关系满足欧姆定律:
V = I × R
其中 V 是电势差（伏特），I 是电流（安培），R 是电阻（欧姆）。
Power in an electrical circuit can be calculated in two ways:
P = V × I and P = I² × R
where P is power (W), V is potential difference (V), I is current (A) and R is resistance (Ω).
电路中的功率有两种计算方式:
P = V × I 和 P = I² × R
其中 P 是功率（瓦特），V 是电势差（伏特），I 是电流（安培），R 是电阻（欧姆）。
Energy transferred in a circuit depends on power and time:
E = P × t
where E is energy (J), P is power (W) and t is time (s).
电路中传递的能量与功率和时间有关:
E = P × t
其中 E 是能量（焦耳），P 是功率（瓦特），t 是时间（秒）。
For an ideal transformer, the ratio of potential differences equals the ratio of turns:
Vₚ ÷ Vₛ = nₚ ÷ nₛ
where Vₚ is primary voltage, Vₛ is secondary voltage, nₚ is number of primary turns and nₛ is number of secondary turns. For 100% efficiency, power input = power output: Vₚ Iₚ = Vₛ Iₛ.
对于理想变压器，电压比等于匝数比:
Vₚ ÷ Vₛ = nₚ ÷ nₛ
其中 Vₚ 是初级电压，Vₛ 是次级电压，nₚ 是初级匝数，nₛ 是次级匝数。若效率为 100%，则输入功率等于输出功率: Vₚ Iₚ = Vₛ Iₛ。
4. Waves | 波
The speed of a wave is linked to its frequency and wavelength by the wave equation:
v = f × λ
where v is wave speed (m/s), f is frequency (Hz) and λ is wavelength (m).
波速与频率和波长的关系用波速方程表示:
v = f × λ
其中 v 是波速（米/秒），f 是频率（赫兹），λ 是波长（米）。
The period of a wave is the reciprocal of the frequency:
T = 1 ÷ f
where T is period (s) and f is frequency (Hz).
波的周期是频率的倒数:
T = 1 ÷ f
其中 T 是周期（秒），f 是频率（赫兹）。
All electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed in a vacuum: c = 3.00 × 10⁸ m/s. The wave equation applies with v replaced by c.
所有电磁波在真空中的传播速度相同: c = 3.00 × 10⁸ 米/秒。此时波速方程中的 v 用 c 代替。
5. Radioactivity and Nuclear Physics | 放射性与核物理
The activity of a radioactive source is the rate at which nuclei decay. There is no simple equation, but you must be able to use the concept of half‑life to determine the fraction remaining after n half‑lives:
Fraction remaining = (½)ⁿ
where n is the number of half‑lives elapsed.
放射源的活度是原子核衰变的速率。虽然没有简单公式，但你须能运用半衰期概念求出经过 n 个半衰期后剩余的比例:
剩余比例 = (½)ⁿ
其中 n 是经过的半衰期个数。
In nuclear equations the total mass number and total atomic number are conserved. For example, α‑decay: ²³⁸₉₂U → ²³⁴₉₀Th + ⁴₂He.
在核反应方程中，总质量数和总原子序数守恒。例如 α 衰变: ²³⁸₉₂U → ²³⁴₉₀Th + ⁴₂He。
6. Quantitative Chemistry | 定量化学
The mole is the chemist’s counting unit. The mass of one mole of a substance is its relative formula mass (Mᵣ) expressed in grams. The number of moles is calculated using:
n = m ÷ Mᵣ
where n is number of moles (mol), m is mass (g) and Mᵣ is molar mass (g/mol).
摩尔是化学家的计数单位。一摩尔物质的质量是以克为单位的相对分子式质量 (Mᵣ)。摩尔数计算公式为:
n = m ÷ Mᵣ
其中 n 是摩尔数（摩尔），m 是质量（克），Mᵣ 是摩尔质量（克/
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