📚 Year 11 WJEC Psychology: Core Knowledge Revision | Year 11 WJEC 心理学：核心知识点梳理
This article brings together the essential topics covered in the Year 11 WJEC GCSE Psychology specification. It is designed as a structured revision resource, presenting key theories, models, classic studies and research methods. Each section offers concise explanations in English immediately followed by the Chinese equivalent, helping learners consolidate understanding and prepare effectively for examinations.
本文汇集了 Year 11 WJEC 心理学GCSE的核心主题，旨在提供一份结构化的复习资源。内容涵盖关键理论、模型、经典研究以及研究方法。每个小节都以英文简要解释，紧跟中文对照，帮助学生巩固理解并为考试做好有效准备。
1. Memory and Forgetting | 记忆与遗忘
Memory is the process of encoding, storing and retrieving information. The multi-store model (Atkinson & Shiffrin) proposes three separate stores: the sensory register, short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM). STM has a limited capacity of 7±2 items and a short duration of around 18 seconds without rehearsal. LTM is believed to have potentially unlimited capacity and duration.
记忆是编码、储存和提取信息的过程。多贮存模型（Atkinson & Shiffrin）提出了三个独立的存储结构：感觉登记、短时记忆（STM）和长时记忆（LTM）。STM 容量有限，为 7±2 个项目，若无复述，保持时间约为 18 秒。LTM 在容量和保持时间上被认为是无限的。
The working memory model (Baddeley & Hitch) elaborates on STM, comprising a central executive that controls attention, a phonological loop for verbal information, a visuospatial sketchpad for visual and spatial data, and an episodic buffer that integrates information. This model explains how we can perform two different tasks simultaneously, such as listening to music while reading.
工作记忆模型（Baddeley & Hitch）细化了 STM，包括中央执行系统控制注意、语音回路处理言语信息、视空间画板处理视觉与空间数据，以及情景缓冲区整合信息。该模型解释了为何我们能同时执行两种不同任务，例如边听音乐边阅读。
Forgetting can be explained by interference theory, where proactive interference (old learning disrupts new) or retroactive interference (new learning disrupts old) occurs. Retrieval failure, especially context-dependent forgetting, demonstrates that the absence of appropriate cues can block recall. Research by Loftus & Palmer showed that leading questions can distort memory, supporting the reconstructive nature of recall.
遗忘可以用干扰理论解释，即前摄干扰（旧知识干扰新知）或倒摄干扰（新知识干扰旧知）发生。提取失败，尤其是情境依存性遗忘，表明缺少适当线索会阻碍回忆。Loftus & Palmer 的研究显示导向性问题会扭曲记忆，支持了回忆的重构性质。
| Multi-Store Model (English) | 多贮存模型 (中文) |
|---|---|
| Three separate, linear stores | 三个独立的线性存储 |
| Emphasises rehearsal for transfer to LTM | 强调复述对转入LTM的作用 |
2. Perception and Illusions | 知觉与错觉
Gregory’s constructivist theory argues that perception is an active process. The brain constructs hypotheses based on past experience, expectations and context, using visual cues to interpret incoming sensory data. In contrast, Gibson’s direct theory asserts that the environment provides all the information needed for perception, such as optic flow patterns and texture gradients, requiring little cognitive processing.
Gregory 的建构主义理论认为知觉是一个主动过程，大脑依据过往经验、期望和情境构建假设，利用视觉线索解读传入的感觉数据。相反，Gibson 的直接理论主张环境提供了感知所需的所有信息，如光流模式和纹理梯度，几乎无需认知加工。
Visual illusions, such as the Muller-Lyer illusion and the Ponzo illusion, are often used to test these theories. Constructivists explain them through mistakes in size constancy scaling and depth cues, whereas direct theorists argue that the illusions arise from the unusual, reduced cues present in the drawings. Cultural experiences also affect perception, as shown in cross-cultural studies on susceptibility to illusions.
视觉错觉，如 Muller-Lyer 错觉和 Ponzo 错觉，常用于检验这些理论。建构主义者通过大小恒常性缩放和深度线索的错误来解释它们，而直接理论者则认为错觉是由图画中存在的异常、减少的线索引起的。跨文化错觉易感性研究表明，文化经验也会影响知觉。
Factors such as emotion, motivation and perceptual set can bias what we perceive. A hungry person may be quicker to identify food-related images, illustrating how internal states shape perceptual interpretation.
情绪、动机和知觉定势等因素会偏向我们所知觉的内容。饥饿的人更容易识别与食物相关的图像，说明了内部状态如何塑造知觉解释。
3. Cognitive Development | 认知发展
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development describes four stages: sensorimotor (0–2 years), pre-operational (2–7 years), concrete operational (7–11 years) and formal operational (11+ years). Key achievements include object permanence, conservation, and abstract logical thinking. According to Piaget, children develop schemas and adapt to the world through assimilation and accommodation.
Piaget 的认知发展理论描述了四个阶段：感知运动阶段（0–2岁）、前运算阶段（2–7岁）、具体运算阶段（7–11岁）和形式运算阶段（11岁以上）。关键成就有客体永久性、守恒以及抽象逻辑思维。按照 Piaget 的看法，儿童通过同化和顺应来发展图式并适应世界。
Dweck’s mindset theory distinguishes between a fixed mindset, where individuals believe intelligence is static, and a growth mindset, where intelligence is seen as malleable through effort. Research has demonstrated that students with a growth mindset show greater resilience and improvement when facing challenges, a finding with important implications for education.
Dweck 的心态理论区分了固定型心态，即认为智力是静态的，以及成长型心态，即认为智力可以通过努力改变。研究表明，拥有成长型心态的学生在面对挑战时表现出更强的韧性和进步，这一发现对教育有重要启示。
Willis and Hayes (2003) found that a short growth-mindset intervention could improve maths achievement, underscoring the practical value of understanding cognitive development theories.
Willis 和 Hayes（2003）发现，简短的成长型心态干预能提高数学成绩，强调了理解认知发展理论的实践价值。
4. Social Influence | 社会影响
Conformity, a change in behaviour or belief due to group pressure, was strikingly demonstrated in Asch’s line judgement studies (1951). Participants often gave an obviously wrong answer to fit in with the majority. Factors affecting conformity include group size, unanimity and task difficulty.
从众是指因群体压力而导致行为或信念的改变，在 Asch 的线段判断研究（1951）中得到了显著体现。参与者常常为了与多数人保持一致而给出明显错误的答案。影响从众的因素包括群体规模、一致性和任务难度。
Obedience to authority was studied extensively by Milgram (1963). Ordinary people were willing to administer what they believed were severe electric shocks to a confederate when instructed by an authority figure. Obedience decreased when proximity to the victim increased or when the authority figure was absent. This study highlights the power of the situation and the agentic state.
Milgram（1963）对服从权威进行了广泛研究。当受权威人物指示时，普通人愿意对假被试施加他们认为严重的电击。当与受害者的距离缩短或权威人物不在场时，服从程度下降。该研究突显了情境的力量和能动状态。
Deindividuation occurs when individuals lose self-awareness in a group, sometimes leading to anti-social behaviour. The bystander effect, studied by Latane and Darley, shows that people are less likely to help a victim when other bystanders are present, due to diffusion of responsibility.
去个性化发生在个体在群体中丧失自我意识时，有时会导致反社会行为。Latane 和 Darley 研究的旁观者效应表明，当有其他旁观者在场时，人们帮助受害者的可能性降低，这是因为责任分散。
5. Brain and Neuropsychology | 大脑与神经心理学
The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. Neurons communicate through electrical impulses and neurotransmitters across synapses. Key brain areas include the frontal lobe (decision-making, personality), temporal lobe (auditory processing, memory), parietal lobe (sensory integration) and occipital lobe (vision).
中枢神经系统由大脑和脊髓组成。神经元通过电冲动和神经递质在突触间进行通信。关键脑区包括额叶（决策、人格）、颞叶（听觉加工、记忆）、顶叶（感觉整合）和枕叶（视觉）。
Broca’s area, located in the left frontal lobe, is essential for speech production. Damage leads to Broca’s aphasia, where speech is laboured but comprehension is relatively intact. Wernicke’s area, in the left temporal lobe, handles language comprehension; damage results in fluent but meaningless speech.
Broca 区位于左侧额叶，对言语产生至关重要。该区受损会导致 Broca 失语症，患者言语费力但理解能力相对完整。Wernicke 区位于左侧颞叶，负责语言理解；受损会导致流利但无意义的言语。
Neuroplasticity refers to the brain’s ability to reorganise itself by forming new neural connections. Maguire et al. (2000) found that London taxi drivers had larger posterior hippocampi than control subjects, demonstrating structural changes associated with extensive navigation experience. This supports the idea that the brain remains adaptable throughout life.
神经可塑性指大脑通过形成新的神经连接进行自我重组的能力。Maguire 等人（2000）发现，伦敦出租车司机的后海马体比控制组更大，表明了与丰富导航经验相关的结构性变化。这支持了大脑终其一生保持适应性的观点。
6. Psychological Problems | 心理问题
Unipolar depression is characterised by persistent low mood, loss of interest and fatigue. Biological explanations point to low serotonin levels and genetic vulnerability. Psychological explanations include Beck’s negative cognitive triad (negative views of self, world and future) and Seligman’s learned helplessness, which arises from repeated uncontrollable negative events.
单相抑郁症的特征是持续性情绪低落、兴趣丧失和疲劳。生物学解释指向血清素水平低和遗传易感性。心理学解释包括 Beck 的负性认知三联（对自我、世界和未来的负性看法）以及 Seligman 的习得性无助，后者源于反复的不可控负面事件。
Addiction, such as nicotine dependence, involves both biological and learning factors. Dopamine release in the brain’s reward pathway reinforces drug-taking behaviour. Operant conditioning explains maintenance through positive reinforcement (pleasurable effects) and negative reinforcement (removal of withdrawal discomfort). Social learning theory highlights modelling and imitation of role models.
成瘾，如尼古丁依赖，涉及生物学和学习因素。大脑犒赏通路中多巴胺的释放强化了吸毒行为。操作条件作用通过正强化（愉悦效应）和负强化（戒断不适的消除）解释成瘾的维持。社会学习理论强调对榜样的模仿和观察。
Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) and antidepressant medications (SSRIs) are common treatments for depression. For addiction, nicotine replacement therapy, aversion therapy and self-help groups are used, often targeting both biological and psychological components.
认知行为疗法（CBT）和抗抑郁药（SSRIs）是抑郁症的常见治疗手段。针对成瘾，则采用尼古丁替代疗法、厌恶疗法和自助小组，通常兼顾生物学和心理学因素。
7. Research Design and Methods | 研究设计与方法
The independent variable (IV) is the factor manipulated by the researcher, while the dependent variable (DV) is the factor measured. Extraneous variables must be controlled to prevent them from affecting the DV. Experimental designs include independent groups (different participants in each condition), repeated measures (same participants in all conditions) and matched pairs (similar participants across conditions).
自变量（IV）是研究者操纵的因素，因变量（DV）是被测量的因素。必须控制额外变量以防止其影响因变量。实验设计包括独立组设计（每个条件不同被试）、重复测量设计（同一被试参与所有条件）和配对设计（条件间匹配相似被试）。
Each design has strengths and weaknesses. Repeated measures eliminate individual differences but risk order effects, which can be managed by counterbalancing. Independent groups avoid order effects but introduce participant variables, requiring random allocation.
每种设计都有优缺点。重复测量消除了个体差异，但存在顺序效应，可通过平衡法控制。独立组避免了顺序效应，却引入了被试变量，需要随机分配。
Non-experimental methods include observations (naturalistic or controlled), correlations, questionnaires and interviews. Correlations measure the relationship between two variables but cannot establish causation. The correlation coefficient ranges from -1 (perfect negative) to +1 (perfect positive).
非实验方法包括观察（自然或控制）、相关、问卷和访谈。相关测量两个变量之间的关系，但不能确定因果关系。相关系数范围从 -1（完全负相关）到 +1
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