📚 Core Knowledge Review for CAIE IGCSE Economics | CAIE IGCSE 经济核心知识点梳理
This article provides a concise yet comprehensive review of the key topics covered in the Year 11 CAIE IGCSE Economics syllabus. Each section highlights essential definitions, diagrams, formulas, and policy insights to help you prepare efficiently for your examinations. Use this as a checklist to ensure you have covered the core content thoroughly.
本文为Year 11 CAIE IGCSE 经济课程提供简明而全面的核心知识点梳理。每个部分都突出关键定义、图表、公式和政策分析，帮助你高效备考。可将本文作为复习清单，确保你已全面覆盖核心内容。
1. The Basic Economic Problem | 基本经济问题
The fundamental economic problem is scarcity: finite resources cannot satisfy unlimited human wants. This forces individuals, firms, and governments to make choices, which always involve an opportunity cost.
基本经济问题是稀缺性：有限的资源无法满足无限的欲望。这迫使个人、企业和政府做出选择，而选择总是伴随机会成本。
The four factors of production are land (natural resources), labour (human effort), capital (man‑made goods used in production), and enterprise (the willingness to take risks and organise the other factors).
四种生产要素为：土地（自然资源）、劳动（人力）、资本（用于生产的人造物品）和企业精神（承担风险并组织其他要素的意愿）。
Opportunity cost is defined as the next best alternative forgone when a choice is made. It is the true cost of any decision, not just the monetary price.
机会成本是指做出选择时所放弃的次优选项。它是任何决策的真实成本，而不仅仅是货币价格。
A Production Possibility Curve (PPC) shows the maximum possible combinations of two goods an economy can produce with its existing resources and technology. Points on the curve represent efficiency, inside the curve represent unemployment or inefficiency, and outside are unattainable without growth.
生产可能性曲线（PPC）展示一个经济体在现有资源和技术下能生产的两种商品的最大组合。曲线上的点表示效率，曲线内的点表示失业或低效，曲线外的点在没有经济增长时无法达到。
Economic growth can be illustrated by an outward shift of the PPC, caused by an increase in the quantity or quality of resources, or by technological progress.
经济增长可以用PPC向外移动来表示，原因包括资源数量或质量的提升，或者技术进步。
2. Demand, Supply and Market Equilibrium | 需求、供给与市场均衡
Demand is the willingness and ability to purchase a good at various prices in a given time period. The law of demand states that, ceteris paribus, as the price of a good rises, the quantity demanded falls.
需求是指在给定时期内，在不同价格下购买一种商品的意愿和能力。需求定律指出，在其他条件不变的情况下，商品价格上升，需求量下降。
A movement along the demand curve occurs when there is a change in the good’s own price. A shift of the demand curve is caused by changes in factors such as income, tastes, prices of substitutes/complements, and population.
沿着需求曲线的移动是由该商品自身价格变化引起的。需求曲线的平移则由收入、偏好、替代品/互补品价格以及人口等非价格因素的变化导致。
Supply is the willingness and ability of producers to offer a good for sale at various prices. The law of supply states that, ceteris paribus, as the price rises, the quantity supplied rises.
供给是生产者在不同价格下提供商品出售的意愿和能力。供给定律指出，在其他条件不变时，价格上升，供给量上升。
Shifts in the supply curve result from changes in production costs, technology, indirect taxes, subsidies, and the number of sellers. Market equilibrium occurs where demand equals supply, clearing the market with no excess demand or excess supply.
供给曲线的平移源于生产成本、技术、间接税、补贴和卖家数量等变化。市场均衡出现在需求等于供给之处，市场出清，既无超额需求也无超额供给。
Excess demand (shortage) pushes prices up, while excess supply (surplus) pushes prices down until a new equilibrium is reached.
超额需求（短缺）推动价格上涨，超额供给（过剩）推动价格下降，直至达到新均衡。
3. Elasticity | 弹性
Price elasticity of demand (PED) measures the responsiveness of quantity demanded to a change in price. It is calculated using the formula:
需求价格弹性（PED）衡量需求量对价格变化的反应程度。计算公式为：
PED = (% Change in Quantity Demanded) / (% Change in Price)
If PED > 1 demand is price elastic (luxuries, many substitutes); if PED < 1 it is price inelastic (necessities, addictive goods). A firm's total revenue rises when price increases on an inelastic good but falls on an elastic good.
若 PED > 1 则需求富有价格弹性（奢侈品、替代品多）；若 PED < 1 则缺乏价格弹性（必需品、成瘾品）。当缺乏弹性的商品提价时，总收益增加；而富有弹性的商品提价总收益减少。
Price elasticity of supply (PES) measures how quantity supplied responds to price changes. The formula is:
供给价格弹性（PES）衡量供给量对价格变化的反应。公式为：
PES = (% Change in Quantity Supplied) / (% Change in Price)
Supply tends to be more elastic when producers have spare capacity, high inventory levels, or longer time to adjust, while inelastic supply often occurs in the short run or with perishable goods.
当生产商有闲置产能、高库存或较长的调整时间时，供给往往更富有弹性；短期或易腐商品的供给通常缺乏弹性。
Income elasticity of demand (YED) measures the response of demand to changes in consumer income. Normal goods have a positive YED (luxuries have YED > 1), while inferior goods have a negative YED.
需求收入弹性（YED）衡量需求对消费者收入变化的反应。正常品具有正的YED（奢侈品 YED > 1），低档品则具有负的YED。
4. Market Failure | 市场失灵
Market failure occurs when the free market fails to allocate resources efficiently, leading to either over‑production or under‑production of goods and services.
当自由市场无法有效配置资源，导致商品和服务生产过多或过少时，就发生了市场失灵。
Negative externalities are harmful effects on third parties not compensated through the market (e.g. pollution from factories). This leads to over‑production because private cost is lower than social cost.
负外部性是指未通过市场补偿的、对第三方造成的有害影响（如工厂污染）。由于私人成本低于社会成本，会导致过度生产。
Positive externalities are beneficial effects on third parties (e.g. vaccination creating herd immunity). The private benefit is lower than the social benefit, resulting in under‑production.
正外部性是指对第三方产生的有利影响（如疫苗接种带来群体免疫）。私人收益低于社会收益，导致生产不足。
Public goods are non‑excludable and non‑rivalrous (e.g. street lighting, national defence), leading to the free‑rider problem and no private supply unless government intervenes.
公共品具有非排他性和非竞争性（如路灯、国防），这会引发搭便车问题，除非政府干预，否则私人不会提供。
Merit goods (e.g. education, healthcare) and demerit goods (e.g. tobacco, alcohol) are under‑consumed or over‑consumed, respectively, because individuals do not fully appreciate their long‑term consequences. Monopoly power and asymmetric information also lead to inefficient outcomes.
优值品（如教育、医疗）和劣值品（如烟草、酒精）分别因个体未充分认识其长期后果而被消费不足或消费过量。垄断势力和信息不对称也会导致低效率。
5. Government Intervention | 政府干预
Governments intervene to correct market failures and improve equity. The main policy tools include taxation, subsidies, price controls, regulation, and direct provision.
政府干预旨在纠正市场失灵并改善公平。主要政策工具包括税收、补贴、价格控制、法规和直接提供。
Indirect taxes (e.g. fuel duty) can be imposed on goods with negative externalities to raise private costs toward social costs. A subsidy reduces production costs and encourages consumption of goods with positive externalities, such as renewable energy.
可以对具有负外部性的商品征收间接税（如燃油税），使私人成本向社会成本靠拢。补贴则降低生产成本，鼓励对具有正外部性的商品（如可再生能源）的消费。
Maximum prices (price ceilings) set below the equilibrium make goods affordable but can cause shortages (e.g. rent controls). Minimum prices (price floors) set above the equilibrium protect producers but can create surpluses (e.g. minimum wage, agricultural support).
最高限价（价格上限）设定在均衡价格之下，可使商品负担得起，但可能导致短缺（如房租管制）。最低限价（价格下限）设定在均衡之上保护生产者，但可能造成过剩（如最低工资、农业价格支持）。
Regulations, such as compulsory education or limits on emissions, directly control quantities or behaviour. The government also directly provides public goods and may nationalise key industries to ensure supply.
法规，如义务教育或排放限制，可直接控制数量或行为。政府还可以直接提供公共品，并可能将关键行业国有化以确保供给。
6. Macroeconomic Indicators and Objectives | 宏观经济指标与目标
Governments aim to achieve stable economic growth, low and stable inflation, low unemployment, and a satisfactory balance of payments position. Additional objectives include greater income equality and environmental protection.
政府的目标是实现稳定的经济增长、低且稳定的通胀、低失业率和令人满意的国际收支状况。其他目标还包括缩小收入差距和环境保护。
Economic growth is typically measured by the percentage change in real Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Real GDP adjusts for inflation, showing the true increase in a country’s output.
经济增长通常用实际国内生产总值（GDP）的百分比变化来衡量。实际GDP剔除了通胀影响，反映一国产出的真实增长。
Inflation is a sustained rise in the general price level, measured by the Consumer Price Index (CPI). Causes include demand‑pull (excessive aggregate demand) and cost‑push (rising production costs). Consequences range from reduced purchasing power to menu costs and uncertainty.
通货膨胀是指总体价格水平的持续上升，用消费者价格指数（CPI）衡量。原因包括需求拉动（总需求过旺）和成本推动（生产成本上升）。后果包括购买力下降、菜单成本和不确定性。
Unemployment refers to those willing and able to work but unable to find jobs. Types include cyclical (demand‑deficient), structural (mismatch of skills), frictional (between jobs), and seasonal. High unemployment leads to lost output and social costs.
失业指那些愿意且有能力工作但找不到工作的人。类型包括周期性（需求不足）、结构性（技能错配）、摩擦性（换工作期间）和季节性。高失业会导致产出损失和社会成本。
The balance of payments on current account records trade in goods, services, investment income and transfers. A persistent deficit may indicate a lack of international competitiveness, while a large surplus may reflect strong exports.
经常账户国际收支记录货物、服务、投资收入和转移。持续逆差可能表明缺乏国际竞争力，而大额顺差则反映出口强劲。
7. Fiscal Policy | 财政政策
Fiscal policy involves government spending and taxation to influence the economy. Expansionary fiscal policy (increased spending or lower taxes) is used during a recession to boost aggregate demand, while contractionary policy (reduced spending or higher taxes) can cool an overheating economy.
财政政策通过政府支出和税收来影响经济。扩张性财政政策（增加支出或减税）用于在经济衰退时刺激总需求，紧缩性财政政策（减少支出或增税）则可为过热经济降温。
Direct taxes are levied on income and wealth (e.g. income tax, corporation tax). Indirect taxes are imposed on spending (e.g. VAT, excise duties) and can be used to influence consumption patterns.
直接税对收入和财富征收（如所得税、公司税）。间接税对支出征收（如增值税、消费税），并可用于影响消费模式。
Government spending includes current spending (wages, goods) and capital spending (infrastructure). A budget deficit occurs when spending exceeds revenue, and a budget surplus occurs when revenue exceeds spending.
政府支出包括经常性支出（工资、商品）和资本性支出（基础设施）。当支出超过收入时为预算赤字，收入超过支出时为预算盈余。
Fiscal policy can target specific groups or regions but may suffer from time lags and can increase government debt if prolonged.
财政政策可针对特定群体或地区，但可能存在时滞，若长期使用还会增加政府债务。
8. Monetary Policy | 货币政策
Monetary policy uses changes in interest rates, money supply, and credit availability to influence aggregate demand. In most countries the central bank conducts monetary policy independently.
货币政策通过改变利率、货币供应和信贷可获得性来影响总需求。在多数国家，中央银行独立执行货币政策。
A reduction in the central bank’s policy interest rate lowers borrowing costs for consumers and firms, encouraging spending and investment, thus boosting aggregate demand. Conversely, raising the rate helps control inflation by dampening demand.
央行下调政策利率会降低消费者和企业的借贷成本，鼓励消费和投资，从而刺激总需求。反之，提高利率通过抑制需求来帮助控制通胀。
Quantitative easing (QE) is an unconventional tool where the central bank creates money to purchase government bonds or other assets, injecting liquidity into the financial system when interest rates are already near zero.
量化宽松是一种非常规工具，央行创造货币以购买政府债券或其他资产，在利率已接近零时向金融体系注入流动性。
Monetary policy can be implemented quickly and adjusted frequently, but its effectiveness may be limited when business and consumer confidence is low (the ‘liquidity trap’).
货币政策可以快速实施并频繁调整，但当企业和消费者信心低迷时（流动性陷阱），其有效性可能受限。
9. Supply‑side Policies | 供给侧政策
Supply‑side policies aim to increase the productive capacity of the economy by improving the quantity and quality of factors of production. These policies shift the long‑run aggregate supply curve to the right, enabling non‑inflationary growth.
供给侧政策旨在通过提高生产要素的数量和质量来增加经济的生产能力。这些政策使长期总供给曲线向右移动，实现非通胀型增长。
Education and training improve labour skills, raising productivity and labour mobility. Investment in infrastructure (roads, ports, broadband) reduces business costs and enhances efficiency.
教育和培训提高劳动技能，提升生产率和劳动力流动性。对基础设施（道路、港口、宽带）的投资可降低企业成本并提升效率。
Tax reforms, such as lower corporation tax or income tax, can incentivise work and investment. Labour market reforms, including more flexible hiring practices, help match workers with jobs more effectively.
税收改革，如降低公司税或所得税，能激励工作与投资。劳动力市场改革，包括更灵活的雇佣方式，有助于更有效地将工人与岗位匹配。
Privatisation transfers state‑owned enterprises to the private sector, often leading to greater efficiency through profit motive. Deregulation reduces barriers to entry and encourages competition.
私有化将国有企业转给私人部门，通常通过利润动机实现更高效率。放松监管降低进入壁垒并鼓励竞争。
10. International Trade and Protectionism | 国际贸易与保护主义
Free trade enables countries to specialise in goods where they have a comparative advantage, leading to increased global output, lower consumer prices, and greater variety.
自由贸易使各国能够专业化生产其具有比较优势的商品，从而增加全球产量、降低消费者价格并增加商品多样性。
Protectionist measures include tariffs (taxes on imports), quotas (quantity limits), subsidies to domestic producers, and non‑tariff barriers (e.g. complex regulations). These are often used to protect infant industries, preserve jobs, or reduce trade deficits.
保护主义措施包括关税（对进口征税）、配额（数量限制）、对国内生产者的补贴以及非关税壁垒（如复杂法规）。这些常被用来保护幼稚产业、保留就业或减少贸易逆差。
Tariffs raise government revenue but increase costs for consumers and producers reliant on imported inputs. Quotas create a more certain restriction but can lead to smuggling and do not generate revenue.
关税增加政府收入，但会提高依赖进口投入的消费者和生产者的成本。配额提供了更确定的限制，但可能引发走私且不产生收入。
Protectionism can provoke retaliation and reduce overall trade, harming long‑term growth. The World Trade Organization (WTO) works to reduce trade barriers and settle disputes.
保护主义可能招致报复并减少总体贸易，损害长期增长。世界贸易组织（WTO）致力于减少贸易壁垒并解决争端。
11. Exchange Rates and Balance of Payments | 汇率与国际收支
An exchange rate is the price of one currency in terms of another. It can be determined by market forces in a floating system or set by the government in a fixed system.
汇率是一种货币以另一种货币表示的价格。在浮动汇率制下，由市场力量决定；在固定汇率制下，由政府设定。
A depreciation (fall in value) makes exports cheaper and imports more expensive, improving the current account in the long run if the Marshall‑Lerner condition holds. An appreciation has the opposite effect.
货币贬值（价值下降）使出口更便宜而进口更昂贵，如果满足马歇尔‑勒纳条件，长期内将改善经常账户。升值则有相反效果。
The current account of the balance of payments consists of trade in goods (visible trade), trade in services (invisible trade), investment income (rents, dividends, interest) and current transfers (foreign aid, remittances).
国际收支经常账户由商品贸易（有形贸易）、服务贸易（无形贸易）、投资收入（租金、股息、利息）和经常转移（外援、汇款）组成。
Governments may use interest rate changes, intervention in foreign exchange markets, or direct controls to influence the exchange rate or manage current account deficits.
政府可通过调整利率、干预外汇市场或实施直接管制来影响汇率或管理经常账户赤字。
12. Economic Development | 经济发展
Economic development is a broader concept than economic growth; it includes improvements in living standards, reduced poverty, better healthcare, and education. Indicators like the Human Development Index (HDI) combine GDP per capita, life expectancy, and education levels.
经济发展是比经济增长更广泛的概念，它包括生活水平的提高、贫困减少、医疗和教育的改善。人类发展指数（HDI）等指标综合了人均GDP、预期寿命和教育水平。
Poverty can be absolute (a lack of basic necessities) or relative (falling below the average living standards in a society). Policies to reduce poverty include providing social safety nets, microfinance, education, and progressive taxation.
贫困可以是绝对的（缺乏基本生活必需品）或相对的（低于社会平均生活水平）。减少贫困的政策包括提供社会保障网、小额信贷、教育和累进税制。
Inequality is often measured by the Gini coefficient and Lorenz curve. High inequality can hinder development by limiting access to opportunities and creating social tensions.
不平等常用基尼系数和洛伦兹曲线衡量。严重的不平等会限制机会获取并引发社会紧张，阻碍发展。
International aid (bilateral, multilateral) and debt relief can support development, but long‑term success depends on good governance, trade, and investment in human capital.
国际援助（双边、多边）和债务减免能够支持发展，但长期成功取决于良好的治理、贸易以及对人力的投资。
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