📚 Year 11 CAIE Geography: Core Knowledge Overview | Year 11 CAIE 地理：核心知识点梳理
This revision guide consolidates the core topics for CAIE IGCSE Geography (0460). It covers population dynamics, settlement, tectonic hazards, rivers, coasts, climate, vegetation and economic development, offering bilingual explanations to support your final revision.
本指南梳理了 CAIE IGCSE 地理 (0460) 的核心主题，涵盖人口动态、聚落、板块灾害、河流、海岸、气候与植被以及经济发展，通过中英双语讲解，帮助你高效前冲刺大考。
1. Population Dynamics | 人口动态
Population change is driven by natural increase (birth rate − death rate) and net migration. Birth rate and death rate are usually expressed per 1000 people per year.
人口变动由自然增长（出生率 − 死亡率）和净迁移共同驱动。出生率与死亡率通常以每年每千人表示。
Natural Increase Rate = Birth Rate − Death Rate
自然增长率 = 出生率 − 死亡率
High birth rates are linked to limited access to contraception, cultural preferences for large families, high infant mortality and lack of female education. Death rates are influenced by healthcare, diet, sanitation and conflict.
高出生率与避孕手段有限、偏好大家庭的文化、婴儿死亡率高及女性教育不足有关。死亡率则受医疗水平、营养、卫生条件和冲突影响。
The Demographic Transition Model (DTM) shows how birth and death rates change as a country develops. The table below summarises its five stages.
人口转型模型 (DTM) 展示了一国发展过程中出生率和死亡率的变化。下表总结了其五个阶段。
| Stage | Birth Rate | Death Rate | Population Change | Example |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 High Stationary | High, fluctuating | High, fluctuating | Slow increase | Remote indigenous groups |
| 2 Early Expanding | Still high | Falling rapidly | Rapid increase | Niger, Afghanistan |
| 3 Late Expanding | Falling | Low | Increase slowing | India, Brazil |
| 4 Low Stationary | Low | Low | Stable or very slow | UK, France |
| 5 Decline | Very low | Low | Slow decrease | Japan, Germany |
Population pyramids illustrate age-sex structure. A wide base indicates high birth rate (youthful population); a narrow base with broad middle suggests an ageing population. These shapes help governments plan for schools, healthcare and pensions.
人口金字塔显示年龄性别结构。底部宽表示高出生率（年轻化人口）；底部窄而中部膨大意味着人口老龄化。这些形状可帮助政府规划学校、医疗和养老金。
2. Migration | 人口迁移
Migration is the permanent or semi‑permanent move of people from one place to another. Internal migration occurs within a country; international migration crosses borders.
迁移指人们从一个地方永久或半永久性地迁往另一个地方。国内迁移发生在一国境内；国际迁移则跨国界进行。
Push factors drive people away from their origin: unemployment, low wages, war, famine, natural hazards. Pull factors attract them to a destination: job opportunities, higher wages, safety, better services and family reunification.
推力因素迫使人们离开来源地：失业、低工资、战争、饥荒、自然灾害。拉力因素吸引人们前往目的地：就业机会、高工资、安全、更好的服务以及家庭团聚。
Migration brings benefits to destination areas, such as filling labour shortages and cultural diversity. However, it can also strain housing, healthcare and schools. Origin areas may suffer loss of working-age population but may gain remittance income.
迁移给目的地带来好处，如填补劳动力短缺、增加文化多样性，但也可能给住房、医疗和学校带来压力。来源地可能丧失劳动年龄人口，但可获得侨汇收入。
Examples include rural-to-urban migration in China, workers moving from Mexico to the USA, and refugee flows from Syria to neighbouring countries.
实例包括中国的农村向城市迁移、墨西哥工人迁往美国，以及叙利亚难民涌入邻国。
3. Settlement and Urbanisation | 聚落与城市化
The settlement hierarchy ranks settlements by size and services: from isolated dwelling and hamlet to village, town, city and conurbation. Higher-order settlements (e.g. cities) provide more specialised services and have larger spheres of influence.
聚落等级按规模和功能服务分级：从独立房屋、小村落到村庄、城镇、城市和城市群。高阶聚落（如城市）提供更高等级的专业服务，服务范围也更广。
Urban land use models explain city structure. The Burgess concentric zone model shows rings: CBD, inner city (twilight zone), lower-class housing, middle-class suburbs and commuter zone. The Hoyt sector model shows wedges along transport routes.
城市土地利用模型解释城市结构。伯吉斯同心圆模型呈现环状：中央商务区(CBD)、内城区（过渡带）、工人阶级住宅区、中产阶级郊区和通勤带。霍伊特扇形模型则显示沿交通线延伸的扇形区。
Urbanisation – the growth in the proportion of people living in towns and cities – is driven by rural-to-urban migration and natural increase. In many LEDCs, rapid urbanisation has led to the growth of informal settlements with poor sanitation and inadequate housing.
城市化（城镇居民比例的增长）受农村向城市迁移和城市人口自然增长推动。在许多欠发达国家，快速城市化导致非正规住区扩张，卫生设施差，住房不足。
Solutions to urban problems include self‑help housing schemes, slum upgrading, improved water supply and better public transport. Sustainable cities aim to reduce waste, use renewable energy and protect green spaces.
城市问题的解决措施包括自助建房计划、贫民窟改造、改善供水和公共交通。可持续城市致力于减少废弃物、使用可再生能源和保护绿地。
4. Tectonic Hazards | 构造灾害
The Earth’s crust is broken into plates that move on the mantle. At constructive (divergent) boundaries, plates move apart and magma rises, forming new crust like the Mid‑Atlantic Ridge. At destructive (convergent) boundaries, an oceanic plate subducts under a continental plate, causing earthquakes and volcanoes (e.g. Andes). At conservative (transform) boundaries, plates slide past each other, building stress and triggering earthquakes (e.g. San Andreas Fault).
地壳由移动的板块构成。在建设型（分离型）边界，板块分离，岩浆上升形成新地壳，如大西洋中脊。在破坏型（汇聚型）边界，大洋板块俯冲到大陆板块之下，引发地震和火山（如安第斯山脉）。在保守型（转换型）边界，板块水平滑动，应力积聚导致地震（如圣安德烈亚斯断层）。
Earthquakes release energy from the focus. The point directly above on the surface is the epicentre. Shaking intensity is measured by the Mercalli scale, while magnitude uses the Richter scale.
地震从震源释放能量。地表正上方为震中。烈度用麦加利地震烈度表衡量，震级则用里氏震级。
Volcanic hazards include lava flows, pyroclastic flows, ash fall and lahars. Benefits include fertile soils, geothermal energy and tourism.
火山灾害包括熔岩流、火山碎屑流、火山灰和火山泥流。好处包括肥沃土壤、地热能和旅游业。
Strategies to reduce earthquake risk include building earthquake‑resistant structures, early warning systems, emergency drills and land‑use zoning. For volcanoes, monitoring gas emissions and ground deformation can help predict eruptions.
降低地震风险的策略包括建造抗震建筑、预警系统、应急演习和土地利用分区。针对火山，监测气体排放和地形变可帮助预测喷发。
5. Rivers and Fluvial Processes | 河流与河流作用
River erosion processes include hydraulic action, abrasion, attrition and solution. Transportation occurs by traction, saltation, suspension and solution. Deposition happens when the river loses energy.
河流侵蚀作用包括水力作用、磨蚀、磨圆和溶蚀。搬运方式有推移、跃移、悬移和溶解。当河流能量减弱时会发生沉积。
The long profile shows a river’s gradient from source to mouth. In the upper course, the channel is steep and narrow, with vertical erosion dominating, forming V‑shaped valleys and waterfalls. The middle course has a wider valley, meanders and moderate gradient. The lower course features wide floodplains, levees and deltas where deposition prevails.
河流纵剖面显示从源头到河口的比降。上游河道陡窄，以垂直侵蚀为主，形成V形谷和瀑布。中游河谷渐宽，出现曲流，比降平缓。下游以沉积为主，发育宽阔的洪泛平原、天然堤和三角洲。
River flooding is caused by heavy rainfall, snowmelt, deforestation and urbanisation. Hard engineering includes dams and levees; soft engineering adopts afforestation and floodplain zoning.
河流洪水由暴雨、融雪、毁林和城市化引起。硬性工程包括水坝和防洪堤；软性工程则采用植树造林和洪泛区管理。
Key river landforms: waterfalls, gorges, meanders, ox‑bow lakes, floodplains and deltas are essential for your case study answers.
关键河流地貌：瀑布、峡谷、曲流、牛轭湖、洪泛平原和三角洲，在案例分析中必不可少。
6. Coastal Processes | 海岸作用
Coastal erosion is driven by wave action, particularly hydraulic pressure, abrasion, attrition and solution. Waves erode cliffs to form wave‑cut platforms, caves, arches and stacks.
海岸侵蚀主要由波浪作用驱动，特别是水压、磨蚀、磨圆和溶蚀。波浪侵蚀悬崖形成浪蚀平台、洞穴、海蚀洞、海蚀拱和海蚀柱。
Longshore drift transports sediment along the coast. Deposition builds beaches, spits and bars. A spit is a long, narrow ridge of sand or shingle extending from the shore, often curved at the end due to changes in wind and wave direction.
沿岸漂移将沉积物沿海岸搬运。沉积作用形成海滩、沙嘴和沙坝。沙嘴是从海岸延伸出的细长砂砾脊，末端常因风浪方向变化而弯曲。
Coastal management strategies include hard engineering – sea walls, groynes and rip‑rap – which are expensive but durable. Soft engineering approaches, such as beach nourishment, dune stabilisation and mangrove planting, work with natural processes to reduce erosion.
海岸管理策略包括硬性工程——海堤、丁坝和防波石——成本高但耐用；软性工程如海滩补沙、沙丘固定和种植红树林，借助自然过程减少侵蚀。
When answering exam questions, you will need to compare the costs and benefits of different management methods using named examples, such as the Holderness Coast erosion management.
答题时，你需要比较不同管理方式的成本与效益，并引用具体案例，如霍尔德内斯海岸的侵蚀管理。
7. Weather, Climate and Natural Vegetation | 天气、气候与
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