📚 Year 11 SQA Sociology: Key Terminology Quick Study Guide | Year 11 SQA 社会学核心术语速记指南
Mastering sociology at Year 11 requires a solid grasp of key terms that underpin every essay and exam question. This quick guide offers concise, bilingual definitions and memory tricks for the essential vocabulary you will encounter across the SQA Sociology syllabus, from socialisation and stratification to crime and research methods. Use this resource to build your sociological vocabulary and deepen your understanding of the social world.
掌握 Year 11 社会学需要对支撑每篇论文和考试题的关键术语有扎实的理解。本速记指南为你提供 SQA 社会学大纲中核心词汇的精简中英双语定义和记忆技巧，涵盖社会化、社会分层、犯罪和研究方法等领域。使用本资源来拓展你的社会学词汇，深化对社会世界的理解。
1. Socialisation, Culture and Identity | 社会化、文化与身份
Socialisation: The lifelong process through which individuals learn the norms, values, and behaviours appropriate to their society. Primary socialisation takes place in the family during early childhood; secondary socialisation occurs later through schools, peer groups, and the media.
社会化：个体学习适应其社会的规范、价值观和行为的终身过程。初级社会化发生在幼儿期的家庭中；次级社会化随后通过学校、同辈群体和媒体进行。
Norms: Unwritten rules that guide behaviour in specific situations, such as queuing in a line or saying ‘thank you’. Norms vary across cultures and can change over time.
规范：指导特定情境下行为的不成文规则，例如排队或说“谢谢”。规范因文化而异，并可能随时间变化。
Values: Deeply held beliefs about what is right, desirable, and important. Values provide a moral framework; for example, the value of equality underpins many laws.
价值观：关于什么是对的、值得追求的和重要的深层信念。价值观提供道德框架；例如，平等的价值观是许多法律的基础。
Culture: The shared way of life of a society, including its language, customs, norms, values, and material objects. Culture is learned, not inherited, and it shapes an individual’s worldview.
文化：一个社会共享的生活方式，包括语言、习俗、规范、价值观和物质事物。文化是习得的而非遗传的，它塑造了个体的世界观。
Identity: A person’s sense of self, shaped by social factors such as gender, ethnicity, class, and nationality. Identity can be multiple and changing.
身份：一个人的自我意识，受到性别、种族、阶级和国籍等社会因素的影响。身份可能是多重且变化的。
Role: The expected behaviour associated with a particular social position, such as the role of a student, parent, or employee. Role conflict occurs when different roles have conflicting demands.
角色：与特定社会位置相关联的期望行为，如学生、父母或雇员的角色。当不同角色的要求冲突时，就会发生角色冲突。
Memory tip: Think of ‘CINV’ – Culture, Identity, Norms, Values – as the four pillars that socialisation builds upon.
记忆技巧：将“CINV”——文化（Culture）、身份（Identity）、规范（Norms）、价值观（Values）——视为社会化构建的四大支柱。
2. Agents of Socialisation | 社会化媒介
Agents of socialisation: The individuals, groups, and institutions that transmit norms and values. The main agents are family, education, peer groups, mass media, religion, and the workplace.
社会化媒介：传递规范和价值观的个人、群体与制度。主要媒介有家庭、教育、同辈群体、大众媒体、宗教和工作场所。
Primary socialisation in the family: Involves learning language, basic norms, and emotional bonds. The family acts as the first and most influential agent, shaping gender roles and core values.
家庭中的初级社会化：包括学习语言、基本规范与情感纽带。家庭是最早也是影响最深的社会化媒介，塑造性别角色与核心价值观。
Education as a secondary agent: Schools transmit formal knowledge and the ‘hidden curriculum’ – unwritten rules on punctuality, obedience, and competition – that prepare students for the world of work.
作为次级媒介的教育：学校传递正式知识以及“隐性课程”——关于守时、服从和竞争的潜在规则，为学生进入职场做准备。
Peer groups: Friends of similar age and status who offer a space to develop independence, share subcultural norms, and sometimes rebel against adult expectations.
同辈群体：年龄和地位相近的朋友圈，提供发展独立性、分享亚文化规范、有时反抗成人期望的空间。
Mass media: Television, social media, films, and newspapers that spread ideas, stereotypes, and consumerist values. Media can reinforce or challenge dominant norms.
大众媒体：电视、社交媒体、电影和报纸，传播观念、刻板印象和消费主义价值观。媒体可以巩固或挑战主流规范。
Workplace socialisation: Occurs when individuals learn professional norms, organisational culture, and expected behaviours in a job setting, continuing across a career.
工作场所社会化：个体在职业环境中学习专业规范、组织文化和期望行为的过程，贯穿整个职业生涯。
Memory tip: Memorise the agents with ‘FEMP RW’ – Family, Education, Media, Peers, Religion, Workplace.
记忆技巧：用“FEMP RW”记住社会化媒介——家庭（Family）、教育（Education）、媒体（Media）、同辈（Peers）、宗教（Religion）、工作场所（Workplace）。
3. Social Control: Formal and Informal | 社会控制：正式与非正式
Social control: The mechanisms society uses to ensure individuals conform to norms and values. It can be internal (conscience, self-control) or external (sanctions from others).
社会控制：社会用来确保个体遵守规范与价值观的机制。它可以是内在的（良心、自我控制）或外在的（来自他人的制裁）。
Formal social control: Enforced by authorised agents such as the police, courts, prisons, and government bodies. It involves written laws and official punishments, like fines or imprisonment.
正式社会控制：由授权机构执行，如警察、法院、监狱和政府机关。它包括成文法律和官方惩罚，例如罚款或监禁。
Informal social control: Exercised through everyday interactions – praise, criticism, ridicule, gossip – by family, peers, and communities. It maintains norms without formal rules.
非正式社会控制：通过日常互动——表扬、批评、嘲笑、闲话——由家庭、同辈和社区实施。它无需正式规则即可维持规范。
Sanctions: Rewards or punishments that reinforce conformity. Positive sanctions (a medal, a smile) encourage behaviour; negative sanctions (a detention, a frown) discourage it.
制裁：强化顺从的奖励或惩罚。正面制裁（奖章、微笑）鼓励行为；负面制裁（留堂、皱眉）抑制行为。
Agencies of social control: Institutions like the justice system, education, religion, and the media that carry out control. They often combine formal and informal methods.
社会控制机构：执行控制的制度，如司法系统、教育、宗教和媒体。它们经常结合正式与非正式方法。
Deviance amplification: A process where media-driven labelling and moral panics increase the scale of deviant behaviour, making the problem worse.
偏差扩大：媒体驱动的贴标签和道德恐慌加剧了越轨行为的规模，使问题变得更严重的过程。
4. Family Diversity and Household Types | 家庭多样性与家庭类型
Nuclear family: A two-generation family unit consisting of parents and their dependent children. Often viewed as the traditional family form, though its prevalence has declined.
核心家庭：由父母和他们的未成年子女组成的两代人家庭单位。常被视为传统家庭形式，尽管其普遍性已经下降。
Extended family: A family that includes relatives beyond the nuclear unit – grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins – living together or maintaining close ties.
扩展家庭：包含核心家庭以外亲属的家庭——祖父母、阿姨、叔叔、表亲——同住或保持密切联系。
Lone-parent family: A single adult raising one or more children, often as a result of divorce, separation, or choice. Such families face economic and social challenges.
单亲家庭：由一个成年人抚养一个或多个孩子的家庭，常因离婚、分居或选择所致。这类家庭面临经济和社会挑战。
Reconstituted family: Also called a blended family, formed when adults remarry or cohabit and bring children from previous relationships together.
重组家庭：又称混合家庭，由成年人再婚或同居并带入前段关系中的孩子而形成。
Cohabitation: An arrangement where an unmarried couple lives together in a long-term relationship. It has increased significantly, reflecting changing norms around marriage.
同居：未婚伴侣以长期关系共同生活的安排。同居现象大幅增加，反映了婚姻规范的改变。
Same-sex family: A family headed by a same-sex couple, with children gained through adoption, surrogacy, or from one partner’s previous relationship.
同性家庭：由同性伴侣领导的家庭，子女通过收养、代孕或来自伴侣之前的关系获得。
Memory tip: Visualise a tree branching out – ‘Nuclear’ at the centre, surrounded by ‘Extended’, ‘Lone-parent’, ‘Reconstituted’, ‘Cohabiting’, and ‘Same-sex’ branches.
记忆技巧：想象一棵树——中心是“核心家庭”，周围有“扩展家庭”、“单亲家庭”、“重组家庭”、“同居家庭”和“同性家庭”的分支。
5. Education: Functions and Inequalities | 教育：功能与不平等
Formal curriculum: The set of subjects and content officially taught in schools, such as maths, science, and history. It aims to provide knowledge and skills for exams and work.
正式课程：学校正式教授的科目与内容，如数学、科学和历史。旨在为考试和工作提供知识与技能。
Hidden curriculum: The informal lessons learned at school – punctuality, obedience, competition, and acceptance of hierarchy. Functionalists see it as preparing children for the workplace.
隐性课程：在学校学到的非正式课程——守时、服从、竞争和接受等级秩序。功能主义者认为它为儿童步入职场做准备。
Cultural capital: The non-financial assets such as knowledge, language, and attitudes that middle-class families pass on, giving their children an advantage in educational settings.
文化资本：中产阶级家庭传递的非经济资产，如知识、语言和态度，使他们的孩子在学校教育中获得优势。
Labelling: The process where teachers attach a label to a student (e.g., ‘bright’, ‘troublemaker’), which can influence the student’s self-concept and performance, leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy.
贴标签：教师将某种标签（如“聪明”、“捣蛋”）贴在学生身上的过程，这会影响到学生的自我概念与表现，导致自证预言。
Streaming and setting: Separating students into different ability groups. Streaming covers all subjects; setting is per subject. Critics argue it reinforces class-based inequalities.
分轨与分班：将学生分入不同的能力组别。分轨适用于所有科目，分班则按科目进行。批评者认为这会强化阶级不平等。
Marketisation of education: Policies that introduce competition between schools, such as league tables and parental choice. This can create unequal access to quality education.
教育市场化：引入学校间竞争的政策，如排名表和父母选择。这可能造成优质教育机会的不平等。
6. Social Stratification: Class, Gender and Ethnicity | 社会分层：阶级、性别与种族
Social stratification: The hierarchical arrangement of individuals into social classes, castes, or other layers based on wealth, power, and prestige. It shapes life chances.
社会分层：根据财富、权力和声望将个体划分为社会阶级、种姓或其他层级的等级排列。它塑造了人生机会。
Social class: A division of society based on economic position, typically measured by occupation, income, and wealth. The Registrar General’s scale or NS-SEC are used in the UK.
社会阶级：基于经济地位的社会划分，通常以职业、收入和财富衡量。英国使用注册总署分类或国家统计局社会经济分类（NS-SEC）。
Life chances: The opportunities an individual has to achieve positive outcomes – health, education, housing – strongly influenced by their social class, gender, and ethnicity.
人生机会：个体获得健康、教育、住房等积极结果的机会，受到其社会阶级、性别和种族的强烈影响。
Social mobility: Movement of individuals or groups between social positions. It can be vertical (up or down) or horizontal (changing occupation without changing class).
社会流动：个体或群体在不同社会位置之间的移动。可以是垂直的（向上或向下）或水平的（更换职业但阶层不变）。
Gender pay gap: The average difference in earnings between men and women, often caused by occupational segregation, part-time working, and discrimination.
性别薪酬差距：男女平均收入的差异，通常由职业隔离、非全日制工作和歧视造成。
Institutional racism: Discriminatory practices embedded within organisations, such as schools or the police, that disadvantage ethnic minorities even without individual intent.
制度性种族主义：内嵌于学校或警察等组织中的歧视性实践，即便没有个体意图，也会使少数族裔处于不利地位。
7. Crime and Deviance | 犯罪与越轨
Deviance: Behaviour that violates social norms, ranging from minor infractions, like wearing unusual clothes, to serious crimes. Deviance is relative; it depends on time, place, and culture.
越轨：违反社会规范的行为，从轻微的不良举动（如穿奇装异服）到严重犯罪。越轨是相对的，取决于时间、地点和文化。
Crime: An act that breaks formal written law and is punishable by the state. Not all deviant acts are crimes, and not all crimes are widely seen as deviant.
犯罪：违反正式成文法并受国家惩罚的行为。并非所有越轨行为都是犯罪，也不是所有犯罪都被广泛视为越轨。
Anomie: A state of normlessness where social norms lose their power to regulate behaviour, often during rapid social change. Merton used this concept to explain crime.
失范：社会规范失去约束行为的能力的无规范状态，常发生在社会快速变迁时期。默顿用此概念解释犯罪。
Labelling theory: Suggests that deviance is not inherent in an act but is the result of society’s label on the person. Once labelled, individuals may accept the deviant identity.
标签理论：认为越轨并非行为本身所固有，而是社会给个体贴上标签的结果。一旦被贴上标签，个体可能接受越轨身份。
White-collar crime: Financially motivated, non-violent crime committed by business or government professionals, such as fraud or embezzlement. Often under-reported and under-punished.
白领犯罪：由企业或政府专业人士实施的、出于经济动机的非暴力犯罪，如欺诈或挪用公款。常被低估和轻罚。
Official statistics vs victim surveys: Official crime data come from police records but undercount unreported crime. Victim surveys, like the Crime Survey for England and Wales (CSEW), capture more hidden crime.
官方统计与受害者调查：官方犯罪数据来自警方记录，但未计入未报案犯罪。受害者调查（如英格兰和威尔士犯罪调查 CSEW）揭示更多隐藏的犯罪。
8. Research Methods in Sociology | 社会学研究方法
Quantitative data: Numerical information that can be measured and analysed statistically, such as official statistics, surveys with closed questions, and experiments. It focuses on patterns and trends.
定量数据：可测量并进行统计分析的数值信息，如官方统计、封闭式问卷和实验。它关注模式和趋势。
Qualitative data: In-depth, non-numerical information that captures meanings, experiences, and feelings, gathered through interviews, participant observation, and open-ended questionnaires.
定性数据：捕捉意义、经验和感受的深度非数字信息，通过访谈、参与式观察和开放式问卷收集。
Validity: The extent to which research truly measures what it claims to measure. Qualitative methods often produce higher validity as they capture the participant’s real perspective.
效度：研究在多大程度上真正测量了它声称测量的东西。定性方法通常产生更高效度，因为它捕捉了参与者的真实视角。
Reliability: The consistency of research findings – if the study were repeated, would the same results be obtained? Quantitative methods, using standardised instruments, tend to be more reliable.
信度：研究结果的一致性——
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