📚 Year 11 WJEC Accounting: Formula & Theorem Quick Reference Handbook | Year 11 WJEC 会计：公式定理速查手册
This handbook gathers all essential formulas, ratios and accounting theorems required for the Year 11 WJEC Accounting course. Use it for quick revision, homework support and examination preparation. Each section presents the key relationships in clear English and Chinese, with worked examples where helpful.
本手册汇集了 Year 11 WJEC 会计课程所必需的全部公式、比率与会计定理。可用于快速复习、作业辅助和考试准备。每个小节都以清晰的中英双语呈现关键关系，并在有益处的地方给出计算实例。
1. The Accounting Equation | 基本会计等式
The accounting equation is the absolute foundation of double-entry bookkeeping. It states that everything the business owns is financed either by the owner’s capital or by outside liabilities.
会计等式是复式记账法的绝对基础。它表明企业拥有的每一项资产，都是由业主资本或外部负债提供资金。
Assets = Capital + Liabilities
资产 = 资本 + 负债
Capital = Assets – Liabilities
资本 = 资产 – 负债
Liabilities = Assets – Capital
负债 = 资产 – 资本
For every transaction, the total debits must equal the total credits. This is the double-entry theorem: there is no debit without a corresponding credit.
每一笔交易中，借记总额必须等于贷记总额。这就是复式记账定理：没有无对应贷记的借记。
2. Income Statement Ratios | 利润表公式
The income statement shows the profit generated over a period. Three levels of profit are commonly tested. All figures come from the trial balance and year-end adjustments.
利润表显示一段时期内的盈利状况。考试通常涉及三个层次的利润。所有数据来自试算表及年末调整。
Gross Profit = Sales Revenue – Cost of Sales
毛利 = 销售收入 – 销售成本
Cost of Sales = Opening Inventory + Purchases – Closing Inventory
销售成本 = 期初存货 + 购货 – 期末存货
Profit for the Year = Gross Profit + Other Income – Expenses
年度净利润 = 毛利 + 其他收益 – 费用
Where expenses include depreciation, bad debts, and general operating costs. ‘Other income’ covers discounts received, commission receivable and similar items.
其中费用包括折旧、坏账和一般经营支出。“其他收益”涵盖购货折扣、应收佣金等项目。
3. Balance Sheet Ratios and Liquidity | 资产负债表比率与流动性
A sole trader’s balance sheet applies the accounting equation. Liquidity ratios measure the business’s ability to pay short-term debts, while the capital section shows the owner’s financial interest.
独资经营者的资产负债表运用会计等式。流动性比率衡量企业偿还短期债务的能力，资本部分反映业主的财务权益。
Current Ratio = Current Assets ÷ Current Liabilities
流动比率 = 流动资产 ÷ 流动负债
Quick Ratio (Acid Test) = (Current Assets – Closing Inventory) ÷ Current Liabilities
速动比率（酸性测试）=（流动资产 – 期末存货）÷ 流动负债
The ideal current ratio is often considered to be between 1.5:1 and 2:1, while a quick ratio of 1:1 is typically regarded as safe. These benchmarks can vary by industry.
理想的流动比率通常被认为在 1.5:1 至 2:1 之间，而速动比率 1:1 通常被视为安全水平。这些基准可能因行业而异。
Working Capital = Current Assets – Current Liabilities
营运资金 = 流动资产 – 流动负债
4. Inventory Valuation Methods | 存货估值方法
Closing inventory must be valued at the lower of cost and net realisable value. WJEC candidates need to apply FIFO, LIFO and AVCO to calculate the cost of closing inventory and cost of sales.
期末存货必须按成本与可变现净值孰低原则计价。WJEC 考生需要运用先进先出法、后进先出法和加权平均法计算期末存货成本和销售成本。
FIFO (First In, First Out): the earliest purchases are assumed to be sold first, leaving the most recent costs in closing inventory.
先进先出法：假设最早购入的存货最先售出，期末存货由最近购入的成本构成。
LIFO (Last In, First Out): the latest purchases are sold first, so closing inventory consists of the oldest costs. (Note: LIFO is not permitted under many international standards but still appears in WJEC questions.)
后进先出法：最新购入的存货最先售出，因此期末存货由最早的成本组成。（注意：许多国际准则不允许使用后进先出法，但WJEC试题中仍然会出现。）
AVCO (Weighted Average Cost) = Total Cost of Goods Available ÷ Total Units Available
加权平均成本 = 可供销售商品总成本 ÷ 可供销售总数量
Once the unit cost is found, closing inventory value equals the average cost multiplied by the number of units in hand.
求得单位成本后，期末存货价值等于平均成本乘以期末库存数量。
5. Depreciation Formulas | 折旧公式
Non-current assets are depreciated to spread their cost over useful life. Two main methods are tested: straight-line and reducing balance. Remember to adjust for residual value where applicable.
非流动资产需在其使用寿命内折旧分摊成本。考试主要考查两种方法：直线法和余额递减法。如有适用残值，记得进行调整。
Straight-Line Annual Depreciation = (Cost – Residual Value) ÷ Useful Life (years)
直线法年折旧额 =（成本 – 残值）÷ 使用年限
Reducing Balance Depreciation = Net Book Value × Depreciation Rate (%)
余额递减法折旧额 = 账面净值 × 折旧率（%）
In the year of purchase, depreciation may be charged for the full year or on a pro-rata basis according to the business policy stated in the question.
在购置当年，折旧可按全年计提，也可根据题目中给定的企业政策按比例计算。
6. Bad Debts and Provision for Doubtful Debts | 坏账与可疑债务准备
Trade receivables are reported at their recoverable amount. An irrecoverable debt is written off, while a provision is created for debts that may not be collected.
应收账款应按可收回金额列报。无法收回的坏账予以注销，同时对可能无法收回的账款计提准备。
Bad Debts Written Off = Irrecoverable Amount (removed from Trade Receivables)
坏账注销金额 = 无法收回金额（从应收账款中移除）
Increase/(Decrease) in Provision = New Provision Required – Existing Provision
准备增加（减少）额 = 新规所需准备 – 现有准备
The closing provision is usually calculated as a percentage of trade receivables after writing off bad debts, e.g. 5% × remaining receivables.
期末准备通常按注销坏账后应收账款的一定百分比计算，例如 剩余应收款 × 5%。
7. Break-Even Analysis | 盈亏平衡分析
Break-even analysis identifies the level of sales at which total revenue equals total costs, meaning neither profit nor loss is made. It is vital for decision-making and interpreting charts.
盈亏平衡分析确定总收入等于总成本的销售水平，即不盈不亏的点。这对决策和图表解读至关重要。
Break-Even Point (units) = Total Fixed Costs ÷ Contribution per Unit
盈亏平衡点（数量）= 总固定成本 ÷ 单位贡献毛益
Contribution per Unit = Selling Price per Unit – Variable Cost per Unit
单位贡献毛益 = 单位售价 – 单位变动成本
Margin of Safety (units) = Actual Sales Units – Break-Even Units
安全边际（数量）= 实际销售量 – 盈亏平衡销售量
In chart form, break-even is where the total cost line crosses the total revenue line. Below that point a loss arises; above it, profit is generated.
在图表中，盈亏平衡点是总成本线与总收入线的交点。低于该点产生亏损，高于该点产生盈利。
8. Bank Reconciliation | 银行对账调节
The cash book balance rarely agrees with the bank statement due to timing differences. A bank reconciliation statement adjusts for unpresented cheques, outstanding lodgements and bank charges.
由于时间性差异，现金日记账余额与银行对账单余额很少一致。银行余额调节表对未兑现支票、未入账存款和银行手续费进行调整。
Start with the balance as per the cash book (after recording bank charges, direct debits etc.) and compare with the bank statement. Key reconciling items:
从现金日记账调整后余额出发（已记录银行手续费、直接借记等）与银行对账单核对。主要调节项目：
- Unpresented cheques: Cheques issued but not yet cleared – deducted from bank statement balance.
- 未兑现支票：已开出但尚未结算的支票 – 从银行对账单余额中减去。
- Outstanding lodgements: Amounts paid into bank but not yet credited – added to bank statement balance.
- 未入账存款：已存入银行但尚未入账的款项 – 加回银行对账单余额。
Adjusted Bank Statement Balance = Balance per Bank Statement – Unpresented Cheques + Outstanding Lodgements
调整后银行对账单余额 = 对账单余额 – 未兑现支票 + 未入账存款
The adjusted cash book balance and the adjusted bank statement balance must be equal after reconciliation.
调节后，调整后的现金日记账余额与调整后的银行对账单余额应当相等。
9. Control Accounts and Trial Balance | 控制账户与试算表
Control accounts summarise the totals from the sales and purchases ledgers. They provide a check on accuracy and help locate errors. The trial balance theorem is: total debit balances must equal total credit balances.
控制账户汇总销售分类账和购货分类账的总计数。它们可检验准确性并帮助查找错误。试算表的定理是：借方余额合计必须等于贷方余额合计。
Total Debits = Total Credits (in Trial Balance)
试算表中：借方总额 = 贷方总额
Sales Ledger Control Account reflects total trade receivables. Its opening balance + credit sales – receipts – returns – bad debts written off = closing balance.
销售分类账控制账户反映应收账款总额。其公式为：期初余额 + 赊销额 – 收款 – 退货 – 坏账注销 = 期末余额。
Purchases Ledger Control Account reflects total trade payables. Opening balance + credit purchases – payments – purchase returns = closing balance.
购货分类账控制账户反映应付账款总额。期初余额 + 赊购额 – 付款 – 购货退回 = 期末余额。
If the trial balance totals do not agree, a suspense account is opened temporarily while errors are corrected. Common errors include omission, commission, principle, original entry and reversal.
如果试算表计算不平衡，会暂设一个暂记账户，同时更正错误。常见错误包括遗漏、记账错误、原则性错误、原始分录错误和方向错误。
10. Comprehensive Ratio Quick Reference | 综合比率速查表
The following table pulls together the key profitability, liquidity and efficiency ratios. All ratios are directly relevant to the WJEC Year 11 specification and are frequently examined in the interpretation of accounts.
下表汇总了关键的盈利能力、流动性和效率比率。所有比率都与 WJEC Year 11 考试大纲直接相关，且在财务报表解释题中频繁考查。
| Ratio / 比率 | Formula | 中文公式 |
| Gross Profit Margin | (Gross Profit ÷ Sales Revenue) × 100% | （毛利 ÷ 销售收入）× 100% |
| Profit for the Year Margin | (Profit for the Year ÷ Sales Revenue) × 100% | （年度净利润 ÷ 销售收入）× 100% |
| Return on Capital Employed | (Profit for the Year ÷ Opening Capital) × 100% | （年度净利润 ÷ 期初资本）× 100% |
| Current Ratio | Current Assets ÷ Current Liabilities | 流动资产 ÷ 流动负债 |
| Quick Ratio | (Current Assets – Inventory) ÷ Current Liabilities | （流动资产 – 存货）÷ 流动负债 |
| Rate of Inventory Turnover | Cost of Sales ÷ Average Inventory | 销售成本 ÷ 平均存货 |
| Trade Receivables Collection Period | (Trade Receivables ÷ Credit Sales) × 365 days | （应收账款 ÷ 赊销额）× 365 天 |
| Trade Payables Payment Period | (Trade Payables ÷ Credit Purchases) × 365 days | （应付账款 ÷ 赊购额）× 365 天 |
Interpretation of these ratios should always compare figures with previous periods, other businesses, or industry averages to draw meaningful conclusions about profitability, liquidity and efficiency.
在解释这些比率时，应始终将其与前期、其他企业或行业平均值进行比较，才能就盈利能力、流动性和效率得出有意义的结论。
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