📚 Year 12 AQA Politics: Key Terms Quick Memorisation Guide | AQA 政治 Year 12 关键术语速记指南
Welcome to your essential revision resource for Year 12 AQA Politics. Mastering key political terms is not just about memory – it is about understanding how the UK political system works. This guide breaks down the most important concepts into bilingual definitions with quick memory hooks. Use these paired explanations to sharpen your exam answers and deepen your political literacy.
欢迎使用 Year 12 AQA 政治必修复习资源。掌握关键政治术语不仅是记忆，更是理解英国政治体系如何运作。本指南将最重要的概念拆解为英中双语定义并附上快速记忆钩子。用这些配对解释来提升你的答题深度和政治素养。
1. Democracy and Participation | 民主与参与
Direct democracy – A form of democracy where citizens make political decisions themselves, typically through referendums, rather than delegating power to elected representatives. Memory tip: ‘Direct’ = you vote directly on an issue, like the Brexit referendum.
直接民主 – 一种民主形式，公民自己直接做政治决策，通常通过全民公投，而非将权力委托给选举代表。记忆提示：“直接” = 你就议题直接投票，比如脱欧公投。
Representative democracy – A system where citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf. The UK is primarily a representative democracy. Memory tip: You choose an MP to represent your interests in Parliament.
代议制民主 – 一种制度，公民选举代表代替自己做出决策。英国主要实行代议制民主。记忆提示：你选出一位议员在议会代表你的利益。
Legitimacy – The rightful authority of a government or institution, usually gained through fair and free elections. A government with high legitimacy finds it easier to govern. Memory tip: ‘Legitimate’ = lawful and widely accepted.
合法性 – 政府或机构拥有的正当权威，通常通过自由公正的选举获得。合法性高的政府施政更容易。记忆提示：“合法” = 既合法律也被广泛接受。
Democratic deficit – A perceived gap between citizens’ expectations of democracy and how the political system actually operates. It suggests a lack of accountability, participation or representation. Memory tip: Think of a leaking bucket – democracy loses water where gaps exist.
民主赤字 – 公民对民主的期望与政治体系实际运作之间的感知差距。它暗示问责、参与或代表不足。记忆提示：想象一个有漏洞的水桶——有缺口的地方民主就流失。
Participation crisis – A decline in traditional forms of political engagement, such as voting and party membership, which raises concerns about the health of democracy. Memory tip: Crisis = sharp drop in turnout and membership.
参与危机 – 传统政治参与形式（如投票和政党成员）的下降，引发对民主健康状况的担忧。记忆提示：危机 = 投票率和党员人数急剧下降。
Recall of MPs Act 2015 – A law allowing constituents to trigger a by-election if their MP is sentenced to prison, suspended from the House for serious misconduct, or convicted for providing false expenses claims. Memory tip: ‘Recall’ = voters can sack a misbehaving MP between elections.
《2015 年议员罢免法》 – 一项法律，允许选民在议员被判监禁、因严重不当行为被暂停议员职务或因虚报开支被定罪时，触发补选。记忆提示：“罢免” = 选民可以在选举间期炒掉不良议员。
2. Political Parties | 政党
Political party – An organised group of people sharing similar political beliefs, which seeks to gain power through elections and form a government. Memory tip: A vehicle to turn shared ideas into public policy.
政党 – 一群具有相似政治信仰的人组成的组织，旨在通过选举赢得权力并组建政府。记忆提示：把共同想法变成公共政策的车辆。
Manifesto – A published list of policies a party promises to enact if it wins a general election. Voters use manifestos to hold parties accountable. Memory tip: A ‘to-do’ list for government.
竞选宣言 – 政党公布的政策清单，承诺若赢得大选就会实施。选民依据宣言让政党承担责任。记忆提示：给政府的“待办事项”清单。
Mandate – The authority granted by voters to a winning party to carry out its manifesto promises. A strong electoral victory provides a clear mandate. Memory tip: Mandate = permission slip from the electorate.
授权 – 选民授予获胜政党执行其竞选宣言承诺的权力。一场有力的选举胜利提供明确的授权。记忆提示：授权 = 选民的“许可单”。
Old Labour / New Labour (Third Way) – Old Labour emphasised state ownership, trade union power and redistribution. New Labour, under Tony Blair, moved to the centre by accepting market economics while promoting social justice. Memory tip: Old = nationalise, New = blend of market and state.
老工党 / 新工党（第三条道路） – 老工党强调国有化、工会权力和再分配。托尼·布莱尔领导下的新工党走向中间，接受市场经济同时推动社会正义。记忆提示：老 = 国有化，新 = 市场与国家的混合。
One-nation Conservatism – A paternalistic form of Conservatism that stresses the duty of the rich to help the poor, aiming for social cohesion. Associated with Benjamin Disraeli. Memory tip: ‘One nation’ = no deep divide between rich and poor.
一国保守主义 – 一种家长式保守主义，强调富人帮助穷人的责任，追求社会凝聚力。与本杰明·迪斯雷利相关。记忆提示：“一国” = 贫富之间没有深深的鸿沟。
Thatcherism / New Right – Combines economic liberalism (free market, privatisation, low taxes) with social authoritarianism (law and order, traditional values). Memory tip: Maggie’s recipe: market freedom + strong state.
撒切尔主义 / 新右派 – 将经济自由主义（自由市场、私有化、低税收）与社会威权主义（法律秩序、传统价值）结合。记忆提示：撒切尔的配方：市场自由 + 强国家。
3. Electoral Systems | 选举制度
First Past the Post (FPTP) – An electoral system where the candidate with the most votes in each constituency wins a seat in Parliament. It tends to produce single-party majority governments but may distort the link between votes and seats. Memory tip: First to cross the line wins, even by a whisker.
简单多数制 – 一种选举制度，每个选区得票最多的候选人赢得议会席位。易产生一党多数政府，但可能扭曲票数与席位的对应。记忆提示：第一个过线者获胜，哪怕只赢微差。
Additional Member System (AMS) – A mixed system combining FPTP constituency seats with regional party-list seats to make the result more proportional. Used for the Scottish Parliament and Welsh Senedd. Memory tip: You get two votes – one for an MP, one for a party ‘top-up’.
附加议员制 – 将简单多数选区席位与区域政党名单席位结合的混合制，使结果更具比例性。用于苏格兰议会和威尔士议会。记忆提示：你有两票——一票选选区议员，一票给政党“充值”。
Single Transferable Vote (STV) – A proportional system where voters rank candidates in multi-member constituencies. Candidates need to reach a quota to be elected, and surplus votes are transferred. Memory tip: Rank them 1, 2, 3… your vote moves if your first choice is safe or eliminated.
单记可让渡投票制 – 一种比例代表制，选民在多议席选区按偏好排序候选人。候选人需达到一个配额才能当选，剩余选票会被转移。记忆提示：排1,2,3… 如果你首选用不上了，你的票就移走。
Safe seat / marginal seat – A safe seat is a constituency where one party has a very large majority and is unlikely to lose. A marginal seat is highly competitive, where a small swing can change hands. Memory tip: Safe = predictable; marginal = cliff-hanger.
安全议席 / 边缘议席 – 安全议席是一个政党拥有巨大优势几乎不会输的选区。边缘议席竞争非常激烈，微小摇摆便会易手。记忆提示：安全 = 可预测；边缘 = 悬念。
Swing – A measure of change in voter support from one party to another, usually calculated as the average of one party’s gain and another’s loss. Memory tip: Swing = pendulum movement between parties.
摇摆幅度 – 衡量选民支持从一党转向另一党的变化指标，通常计算一党所得与另一党所失的平均值。记忆提示：摇摆 = 政党之间的钟摆移动。
4. Voting Behaviour and the Media | 投票行为与媒体
Class dealignment – The progressive weakening of the tendency for working-class voters to vote Labour and middle-class voters to vote Conservative. Class no longer reliably predicts voting behaviour. Memory tip: Class labels no longer stick to party labels.
阶级解盟 – 工人阶级投工党、中产阶级投保守党的倾向逐渐弱化。阶级不再可靠地预测投票行为。记忆提示：阶级标签不再粘在政党标签上。
Partisan dealignment – A fall in strong, lifelong psychological attachment to a political party. More voters see themselves as floating voters rather than steadfast supporters. Memory tip: Partisan = party fan; dealignment = fans switching sides.
党派疏远 – 对某一政党的强烈终身心理依恋下降。更多选民自视为浮动选民而非坚定支持者。记忆提示：党派 = 政党粉丝；疏远 = 粉丝跳槽。
Governing competence – Voters’ judgement of a party’s ability to manage the economy, public services and crises. Perceived competence often overrides long-term loyalty in general elections. Memory tip: ‘Are they good at running the country?’ is the key question.
执政能力 – 选民对政党管理经济、公共服务和危机能力的判断。在普选中，能力感知常压倒长期忠诚。记忆提示：关键问题——“他们治国行不行？”
Salience – The importance a voter attaches to a particular issue when deciding how to vote. The NHS, economy and immigration have varied in salience across elections. Memory tip: Salience = the issue that shouts loudest at election time.
显著性 – 选民在决定投票时对特定议题赋予的重要性。NHS、经济和移民在不同选举中的显著性有所不同。记忆提示：显著性 = 选举期间叫得最响的议题。
Opinion polls – Surveys of a sample of voters designed to predict election outcomes or gauge public opinion on issues. They influence media narratives and voter expectations. Memory tip: A snapshot, not a prophecy.
民意调查 – 对部分选民抽样进行的调查，旨在预测选举结果或测量公众对议题的意见。它们影响媒体叙事和选民预期。记忆提示：一张快照，不是预言。
5. The Constitution | 宪法
Codified / uncodified constitution – A codified constitution is written in a single document, as in the USA. The UK has an uncodified constitution – spread across statutes, conventions and common law. Memory tip: Codified = one book; uncodified = scattered puzzle pieces.
成文宪法 / 不成文宪法 – 成文宪法写在一份单一文件中，如美国。英国宪法是不成文的——分散于成文法、惯例和普通法之中。记忆提示：成文 = 一本书；不成文 = 散落的拼图。
Parliamentary sovereignty – The principle that Parliament has supreme legal authority and can make or repeal any law. No Parliament can bind its successors. Memory tip: Parliament is the ultimate law-making factory.
议会主权 – 指议会拥有最高法律权威，可以制定或废除任何法律。议会不能约束其继任者。记忆提示：议会是终极法律制造工厂。
Rule of law – The principle that everyone is subject to the law and that the law is fairly applied. It prevents arbitrary government. Memory tip: Nobody is above the law – not even the PM.
法治 – 任何人都须服从法律且法律被公正执行的原则。它防止政府专断。记忆提示：没有人高于法律——首相也不例外。
Statute law / common law – Statute law is made by Parliament and written in Acts. Common law is judge-made law developed through court rulings and precedents. Memory tip: Statute = Parliament’s pen; common law = judge’s precedent.
成文法 / 普通法 – 成文法由议会制定，写于法案中。普通法由法官通过判例和先例发展而来。记忆提示：成文法 = 议会的笔；普通法 = 法官的先例。
Conventions – Unwritten rules of political conduct considered binding but not legally enforceable. For instance, the monarch appoints the leader of the majority party as Prime Minister. Memory tip: Conventions are the ‘gentleman’s agreements’ of politics.
惯例 – 被认为有约束力但无法律强制力的不成文政治行为规则。比如，君主任命多数党领袖为首相。记忆提示：惯例是政治的“绅士协定”。
6. Parliament | 议会
Bicameral – A legislature consisting of two chambers. The UK Parliament has the elected House of Commons and the appointed House of Lords. Memory tip: ‘Bi’ = two; two chambers, more scrutiny.
两院制 – 由两个议院组成的立法机关。英国议会设有选举产生的下议院和任命产生的上议院。记忆提示：“两” = 两个议院，更多审查。
Backbencher / frontbencher – Backbenchers are MPs who do not hold ministerial or shadow ministerial roles. Frontbenchers are senior MPs belonging to the government or opposition leadership. Memory tip: Backbenchers sit behind the front row in the Commons.
后座议员 / 前座议员 – 后座议员是不担任部长或影子部长职务的议员。前座议员是政府或反对党领导层的高级议员。记忆提示：后座议员在下院坐在前排之后。
Whip – An MP or peer appointed to ensure party discipline and attendance. The term also refers to a weekly instruction sent to party members about upcoming votes. Memory tip: Whips crack the party line – and the three-line whip is a strict order.
党鞭 – 被任命确保党纪和出勤的议员。也指发送给党员的每周投票指示。记忆提示：党鞭鞭打政党路线——三线党鞭是严格命令。
Select committee – Cross-party groups of MPs that scrutinise specific government departments. They conduct inquiries, call witnesses and publish reports. Memory tip: Parliament’s watchdogs, not law-makers.
特别委员会 – 由跨党派议员组成的审查特定政府部门的团队。它们进行调查、传召证人并发表报告。记忆提示：议会的监督犬，不是立法者。
Salisbury Convention – A convention that the House of Lords will not oppose legislation fulfilling the winning party’s manifesto commitments at second reading. Memory tip: Lords respect the manifesto mandate.
索尔兹伯里惯例 – 上议院不会在二读时反对落实获胜政党竞选宣言承诺的立法的惯例。记忆提示：上议院尊重宣言授权。
7. The Prime Minister and Cabinet | 首相与内阁
Prerogative powers – Historic powers belonging to the monarch but now exercised by the Prime Minister and ministers, such as declaring war, appointing ministers and signing treaties. Memory tip: Royal powers turned political.
特权 – 原属君主、现由首相和大臣行使的历史性权力，如宣战、任命大臣和签署条约。记忆提示：王室权力变成了政治权力。
Cabinet government – A system in which key decisions are taken collectively by the Cabinet, with the Prime Minister as ‘first among equals’. Memory tip: The PM chairs the circle, but the circle decides.
内阁制政府 – 重大决策由内阁集体做出的制度，首相为“同侪之首”。记忆提示：首相主持圆桌，但圆桌做决定。
Prime Ministerial government – A trend where the Prime Minister dominates decision-making, marginalising the Cabinet. Often linked to a large majority and media focus on the PM. Memory tip: PM becomes a presidential figure.
首相制政府 – 首相主导决策、边缘化内阁的趋势。通常与巨大议会多数和媒体聚焦首相有关。记忆提示：首相变身为总统式人物。
Individual ministerial responsibility – The convention that a minister is responsible for their own personal conduct and for the actions of their department. Serious failures should lead to resignation. Memory tip: Blame stops with the minister.
个人大臣责任制 – 大臣对自己个人行为和所属部门的行为负责的惯例。严重失职应导致辞职。记忆提示：追责止于大臣。
Collective ministerial responsibility – All ministers must publicly support Cabinet decisions or resign. It ensures government unity. Memory tip: One voice for the whole government, or goodbye.
集体大臣责任制 – 所有大臣必须公开支持内阁决策，否则辞职。这确保政府团结。记忆提示：整个政府一个声音，否则走人。
8. The Judiciary | 司法
Judicial independence – The principle that judges must be free from political interference. Protected by security of tenure, independent appointments and separation from Parliament. Memory tip: Judges cannot be sacked because politicians dislike a ruling.
司法独立 – 法官必须免于政治干涉的原则。通过任期保障、独立任命和与议会分离受到保护。记忆提示：法官不会因为政客不喜判词而被解职。
Judicial neutrality – Judges must be impartial and base decisions solely on the law, without personal bias. Public confidence rests on this neutrality. Memory tip: Blindfold on Lady Justice – no favours, no prejudice.
司法中立 – 法官必须不偏不倚，仅依据法律裁决，无个人偏见。公众信心建立在此中立之上。记忆提示：正义女神蒙眼——不偏袒、无偏见。
Judicial review – A process by which courts examine the legality of decisions made by public bodies. A judge can quash a decision if it is ultra vires, irrational or procedurally improper. Memory tip: Courts check government homework, not rewrite policy.
司法审查 – 法院审查公共机构决策合法性的程序。如果决定越权、不合理或程序不当，法官可以推翻它。记忆提示：法院检查政府作业，不是重写政策。
Supreme Court – The highest court in the UK, established in 2009 to replace the House of Lords as the final court of appeal. It reinforces judicial independence. Memory tip: Top of the UK’s judicial ladder, outside Parliament.
最高法院 – 英国最高司法机构，2009年成立，取代上议院作为终审法院。它加强了司法独立。记忆提示：英国司法阶梯顶端，处在议会之外。
Ultra vires – Latin for ‘beyond the powers’. A public body acts ultra vires when it exceeds the authority granted by law. Memory tip: Think ‘ultra’ = too far; it went too far beyond its legal limits.
越权 – 拉丁语“超出权力”。当公共机构超越法律授予的权限行事时，就是越权。记忆提示：想想“ultra” = 太过；它超出了法律界限。
9. Devolution | 权力下放
Devolution – The transfer of certain legislative and executive powers from the UK Parliament to regional bodies, while sovereignty remains at Westminster. Memory tip: Power lent, not given forever.
权力下放 – 将某些立法和行政权力从英国议会转移至地区机构，而主权仍留在威斯敏斯特。记忆提示：权力是借出的，不是永久赠予。
Asymmetrical devolution – Devolution that has been applied unevenly across the UK, with different parts having different powers. Scotland has more extensive powers than Wales or English regions. Memory tip: Asymmetrical = not a one-size-fits-all model.
不对称权力下放 – 权力下放在全英实施得不均匀，不同地区拥有不同权力。苏格兰比威尔士或英格兰地区享有更广泛权力。记忆提示：不对称 = 不是一刀切模式。
Reserved powers / devolved matters – Reserved powers remain with Westminster (e.g. defence, foreign policy). Devolved matters are controlled by regional bodies (e.g. health, education). Memory tip: Reserved = kept in London; devolved = local control.
保留权力 / 下放事务 – 保留权力留在威斯敏斯特（如国防、外交）。下放事务由地方机构掌控（如卫生、教育）。记忆提示：保留 = 留在伦敦；下放 = 地方管理。
West Lothian question – The puzzle of why MPs from devolved nations (e.g. Scotland) can vote on matters affecting England, but English MPs cannot vote on devolved matters in Scotland. Memory tip: Why can an MP in Glasgow decide on Manchester’s schools but not the other way round?
西洛锡安问题 – 为何权力下放地区的议员（如苏格兰）可以就影响英格兰的事务投票，而英格兰议员却不能就苏格兰的下放事务投票的疑问。记忆提示：为什么格拉斯哥议员能决定曼彻斯特的学校，反过来却不行？
English votes for English laws (EVEL) – A now-abolished parliamentary mechanism that gave English MPs a veto over laws only affecting England. It attempted to answer the West Lothian question. Memory tip: ‘EVEL’ tried to balance, but has now been removed.
英格兰议员对英格兰法律投票 – 现已废除的议会机制，赋予英格兰议员对仅影响英格兰的法律的否决权。它试图解答西洛锡安问题。记忆提示：“EVEL”试图平衡，但已被取消。
10. Pressure Groups | 压力团体
Pressure group – An organised body that seeks to influence government policy without standing for election. They range from charities to trade unions. Memory tip: Persuaders, not candidates.
压力团体 – 寻求影响政府政策而不参与竞选的组织。从慈善机构到工会范围很广。记忆提示：说服者，并非候选人。
Insider group / outsider group – Insider groups have access to government and are regularly consulted. Outsider groups lack such access and often rely on protests or media campaigns to gain influence. Memory tip: Insiders have a backstage pass; outsiders shout from the street.
内部团体 / 外部团体 – 内部团体能接触政府并常获咨询。外部团体缺乏这种渠道，常依赖抗议或媒体运动来获取影响力。记忆提示：内部人有后台通行证；外部人从街上呐喊。
Sectional group / promotional group – Sectional groups represent a specific section of society (e.g. trade unions, professional bodies). Promotional groups advocate for a cause (e.g. Greenpeace, Shelter). Memory tip: Sectional = for ‘us’; promotional = for a cause.
分部团体 / 促进团体 – 分部团体代表社会特定部分（如工会、专业机构）。促进团体倡导一项事业（如绿色和平、庇护所）。记忆提示：分部 = 为了“我们”；促进 =
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