📚 OCR Philosophy Year 13 Terminology Quick Recall Guide | OCR 哲学 Year 13 术语速记指南
This bilingual glossary is designed to help Year 13 students master the key concepts examined in OCR A Level Philosophy (H573). Each term is paired with a concise English definition and its Chinese equivalent, covering philosophy of religion, ethics, and developments in Christian thought. Use these bite‑sized explanations alongside your revision to reinforce your understanding and exam technique.
这份双语术语表旨在帮助 Year 13 学生掌握 OCR A Level 哲学（H573）考试中的核心概念。每个术语都配有简洁的英文定义和对应的中文解释，涵盖宗教哲学、伦理学以及基督教思想发展。配合备考时使用这些简明释义，可以巩固理解并提升答题技巧。
1. Ontological Arguments | 本体论论证
Anselm’s definition of God – ‘that than which nothing greater can be conceived’. Anselm argues that if such a being exists only in the mind, it is not the greatest, because a being that exists in reality as well is greater.
安瑟伦对上帝的定义 – ‘无法设想有比之更伟大之物’。安瑟伦认为，如果这样的存在仅仅存在于理智中，那它就不是最伟大的，因为同时存在于现实中的存在更为伟大。
Predicate – In Kant’s critique, existence is not a real predicate; it does not add to the concept of a thing. Saying ‘God exists’ does not enlarge the concept of God.
谓词（述语） – 在康德的批判中，存在不是一个真实的谓词；它并不增加事物的概念。说‘上帝存在’并没有扩展上帝的概念。
Necessary being – A being that cannot not exist, whose existence is part of its essence. In modal ontological arguments, if God’s existence is possible, it is necessary.
必然存在者 – 一个不可能不存在、其存在是其本质一部分的存在者。在模态本体论论证中，如果上帝的存在是可能的，那么它就是必然的。
2. Cosmological and Teleological Arguments | 宇宙论与目的论论证
Principle of Sufficient Reason (PSR) – Leibniz’s principle that everything must have a reason or cause. Applied to the universe, the sufficient reason is God, who contains its own reason for existence.
充足理由原则 – 莱布尼茨的原则，即一切事物都必须有一个理由或原因。应用到宇宙，其充足理由就是上帝，上帝自身包含其存在的理由。
Kalam cosmological argument – Everything that begins to exist has a cause; the universe began to exist; therefore, the universe has a cause, identified as God. Defended by William Lane Craig.
卡拉姆宇宙论论证 – 一切开始存在的事物都有其原因；宇宙开始存在；因此宇宙有一个原因，即上帝。由威廉·莱恩·克雷格辩护。
Analogous (design argument) – Paley’s watchmaker analogy infers an intelligent designer from the complexity and purposefulness of nature. Hume criticised the analogy as weak and the inference to a perfect God unwarranted.
类比（设计论证） – 佩利的钟表匠类比从自然的复杂性和合目的性推断出一位理智的设计者。休谟批评这一类比薄弱，并且推断出完美的上帝是不合理的。
Anthropic principle – The fine‑tuning of the universe’s constants suggests it was designed for life. Swinburne uses it as evidence for God, while critics propose the multiverse as an alternative explanation.
人择原理 – 宇宙常数的精细调节表明它是为生命而设计的。斯温伯恩以此作为上帝存在的证据，而批评者提出多重宇宙作为替代解释。
3. Religious Experience | 宗教经验
Principle of credulity – Swinburne’s principle that, in the absence of defeaters, we should trust our sensory and religious experiences. It shifts the burden of proof onto the sceptic.
轻信原则 – 斯温伯恩的原则，即在没有否定因素的情况下，我们应当相信我们的感官经验和宗教经验。它将举证责任转移到怀疑者身上。
Principle of testimony – Also from Swinburne, we should generally believe what others tell us unless we have reason to doubt. This supports accepting reports of religious experiences.
见证原则 – 同样来自斯温伯恩，我们通常应当相信他人告诉我们的，除非有理由怀疑。这支持接受宗教经验的报告。
Corporate religious experience – An experience shared by a group, such as the Toronto Blessing. The communal nature reduces the likelihood of individual delusion.
集体宗教经验 – 一群人共享的经验，如多伦多祝福。集体性降低了个人幻觉的可能性。
Naturalistic explanation – Psychological or physiological accounts that explain religious experiences without the supernatural, e.g., Freud’s projection theory or persinger’s temporal lobe stimulation.
自然主义解释 – 不用超自然因素而用心理或生理原因解释宗教经验，例如弗洛伊德的投射理论或潘兴的颞叶刺激实验。
4. Problem of Evil | 罪恶问题
Inconsistent triad – Mackie’s formulation: if God is omnipotent and omnibenevolent, evil should not exist. The presence of evil appears to make the existence of such a God logically impossible.
不一致三元组 – 麦基的公式：如果上帝全能且全善，恶就不应存在。恶的存在似乎使这样一位上帝在逻辑上不可能。
Soul‑making theodicy – Developed by Irenaeus and Hick, evil promotes moral and spiritual growth. Humans are created imperfect and develop into the likeness of God through overcoming challenges.
灵魂塑造神义论 – 由爱任纽和希克发展，恶促进道德和灵性成长。人类被造时并不完美，通过克服挑战逐渐长成上帝的样式。
Free will defence – Plantinga argues that even an omnipotent God cannot create a world with free agents who always choose good, because free will logically entails the possibility of evil.
自由意志辩护 – 普兰丁格论证，即使是全能的上帝也无法创造一个自由受造物总是选择善的世界，因为自由意志在逻辑上蕴含着恶的可能性。
Natural evil – Suffering caused by natural processes, e.g., earthquakes, diseases. Theodical responses often link natural evil to the laws of nature necessary for free moral action.
自然恶 – 由自然过程引起的苦难，如地震、疾病。神义论回应常将自然恶与自由道德行动所需的自然法则联系起来。
5. Religious Language | 宗教语言
Via negativa (apophatic way) – Speaking of God only through negation, saying what God is not. It aims to preserve divine transcendence but may leave God ineffable.
否定之道（遮诠法） – 仅仅通过否定来谈论上帝，只说上帝不是什么。它旨在维护上帝的超越性，但可能使上帝不可言说。
Symbolic language – Tillich argues that religious language is symbolic: it ‘participates in’ the power of what it points to and opens up levels of reality. Unlike signs, symbols cannot be invented arbitrarily.
象征语言 – 蒂里希主张宗教语言是象征性的：它‘参与’其所指向者的力量，并开启现实的层次。与记号不同，象征不能任意发明。
Falsification principle – Flew applied it to religious claims: if a statement is compatible with any state of affairs, it lacks empirical meaning. Religious believers’ refusal to allow anything to count against their beliefs renders them vacuous.
证伪原则 – 弗卢将其应用于宗教主张：如果一种陈述与任何事态都不冲突，它就缺乏经验意义。宗教信徒拒绝让任何事反对其信仰，使得信仰空洞无物。
Wittgenstein’s language games – Religious language has its own rules and criteria within the ‘form of life’ of a religious community. It is only meaningful internally, not judged by scientific standards.
维特根斯坦的语言游戏 – 宗教语言在宗教团体的‘生活形式’中拥有自己的规则和标准。它只在内部有意义，不能用科学标准来评判。
6. The Nature of God and Attributes | 上帝的属性与本质
Omnipotence – Often defined as the ability to do anything that is logically possible. The paradox of the stone asks can God create a stone too heavy for him to lift, challenging the coherence of omnipotence.
全能 – 通常定义为能够做任何逻辑上可能之事的能力。石头悖论问：上帝能否造出一块他举不起来的石头，挑战全能概念的连贯性。
Atemporal vs. temporal eternity – God either exists outside time (Boethius, Aquinas) or everlasting within time (Swinburne). Atemporal eternity may conflict with God’s interaction with a temporal world.
无时间性的永恒 vs. 有时间性的永恒 – 上帝要么存在于时间之外（波爱修斯、阿奎那），要么在时间中永存（斯温伯恩）。无时间的永恒可能与上帝在时间性世界中的行动相冲突。
Divine omniscience and free will – If God knows infallibly what I will do tomorrow, it seems I cannot do otherwise, threatening free will. Some solutions deny that foreknowledge forces the outcome, maintaining compatibilism.
上帝的全知与自由意志 – 如果上帝无误地知道我明天会做什么，我似乎就无法作出不同选择，从而威胁自由意志。一些解决方案否认预知会迫使结果发生，坚持相容论。
7. Meta‑ethics | 后设伦理学
Moral realism – The view that moral facts exist independently of human minds. Naturalism (e.g. utilitarianism) sees moral properties as natural properties; non‑naturalism (e.g. Moore, intuitionism) sees them as a distinct, irreducible domain.
道德实在论 – 认为道德事实独立于人的心灵而存在。自然主义（如功利主义）视道德属性为自然属性；非自然主义（如摩尔、直观主义）视其为独特、不可还原的领域。
Error theory – Mackie argues that all ethical claims presuppose objective values that do not exist; therefore, all positive moral statements are false. This is an anti‑realist, cognitivist position.
错误理论 – 麦基主张所有伦理主张都预设了客观价值，但这些价值并不存在；因此，所有肯定性道德陈述都是错误的。这是一种反实在论、认知主义的立场。
Emotivism – Ayer’s theory that ethical language expresses feelings and attempts to evoke similar feelings in others. Moral judgments are neither true nor false; they are non‑cognitive.
情绪主义 – 艾耶尔的理论，认为伦理语言表达情感并试图唤起他人相似的情感。道德判断既不真也不假；它们是非认知性的。
Prescriptivism – Hare argues that moral judgments are prescriptive and universalisable. Saying ‘stealing is wrong’ implies ‘do not steal’ and commits the speaker to applying this rule in all relevantly similar cases.
规约主义 – 黑尔主张道德判断是规约性的且可普遍化的。说‘偷窃是错的’意味着‘不要偷窃’，并承诺说话者将此规则应用于所有相关类似的情况。
8. Normative Ethical Theories | 规范伦理学理论
Act utilitarianism – Bentham’s principle of utility: an act is right if it promotes the greatest happiness for the greatest number. Evaluates each act individually by the hedonic calculus.
行为功利主义 – 边沁的功利原则：一个行为若能促进最大多数人的最大幸福就是对的。用快乐计算法逐一评估每个行为。
Rule utilitarianism – Mill’s version considers which general rules, if followed, would maximise utility. Prioritises higher pleasures and long‑term consequences over act‑by‑act calculations.
规则功利主义 – 密尔的版本考虑哪些普遍规则若被遵守将带来最大功利。优先考虑高级快乐和长期后果，而非逐行为计算。
Categorical imperative (first formulation) – Kant: ‘Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.’ Tests the consistency and rationality of maxims.
定言令式（第一公式） – 康德：‘只依照那些你同时愿意其成为普遍法则的准则去行动。’检验准则的一致性和合理性。
The Nicomachean mean – Aristotle’s virtue ethics centres on the doctrine of the mean: a virtue is the mean between two vices, one of excess and one of deficiency, relative to the individual and situation.
尼各马可中道 – 亚理斯多德美德伦理学的核心是‘中道’学说：美德是两种恶习之间的中道，一个是过度，一个是不及，且因人因境而异。
9. Free Will and Determinism | 自由意志与决定论
Hard determinism – The view that all events are causally determined and therefore free will is an illusion. Laplace’s demon and psychological determinism (Skinner) support this position.
硬决定论 – 主张所有事件都由因果决定，因此自由意志是幻觉。拉普拉斯妖和心理决定论（斯金纳）支持此立场。
Libertarianism (metaphysical) – Asserts that free will is incompatible with determinism, and we do possess it. Agents are capable of origination, initiating new causal chains uncaused by prior events.
（形上学）自由意志主义 – 断言自由意志与决定论不相容，而我们确实拥有它。行动者具有创始能力，能发起不由先前事件引起的新的因果链。
Compatibilism (soft determinism) – Free will is compatible with determinism. Hume: freedom means the absence of external constraint, not the absence of causation. A free act is one caused by one’s own desires and beliefs.
相容论（软决定论） – 自由意志与决定论相容。休谟：自由意味着没有外部约束，而非没有原因。自由行为是由自身欲望和信念引起的行为。
Moral responsibility – The debate focuses on whether determinism undermines praise and blame. Strawson’s reactive attitudes demonstrate that we naturally hold people responsible regardless of metaphysical free will.
道德责任 – 争论焦点在于决定论是否削弱赞美与责备。斯特劳森的反应态度表明，无论形上学自由意志如何，我们自然会让人承担责任。
10. Conscience | 良心
Conscience as reason (Aquinas) – Synderesis is the innate habit of grasping the first principle of natural law: ‘do good and avoid evil’. Conscientia is the act of applying this knowledge to particular situations, a rational process potentially erroneous.
作为理性的良心（阿奎那） – synderesis（良知）是把握自然法第一原则‘行善避恶’的先天习性。conscientia（良心）是将此知识应用于具体情形的行为，是一个可能出错的理性过程。
Conscience as emotional (Newman) – Newman sees conscience as the voice of God, a direct moral sense that is more like a feeling of awe and obedience than a rational deduction. It points to a divine lawgiver.
作为情感的良心（纽曼） – 纽曼视良心为上帝的声音，一种直接的道德感，更像敬畏与顺服的情感，而非理性推导。它指向一位神圣的立法者。
Freud’s super‑ego – Conscience is the internalisation of parental and societal norms during childhood, generating guilt. It is a product of psychosexual development, not a divine faculty.
弗洛伊德的超我 – 良心是童年时期父母和社会规范的内化，产生罪恶感。它是性心理发展的产物，而非神圣官能。
11. Sexual Ethics and Applications | 性伦理及其应用
Natural law approach to sexuality – Sexual acts are morally good only if they are open to procreation within a heterosexual marriage. The primary precept of procreation leads to absolute prohibitions against contraception, masturbation, and homosexual acts.
自然法对性伦理的进路 – 性行为唯有在异性婚姻中且对生育开放时才是道德上善的。生育这一首要规条导致对避孕、自慰和同性恋行为的绝对禁止。
Situation ethics on sexual relationships – Fletcher’s agapeic calculus judges each situation by its own merits. The only absolute is love; therefore, pre‑marital sex, divorce, or homosexual relationships may be morally good if they serve love.
情境伦理对性关系的立场 – 弗莱彻的爱佳则计算法视每件事按其本身情况判断。唯一的绝对是爱；因此婚前性行为、离婚或同性恋关系若服务于爱，就可能为善。
Kantian sexual ethics – Applies the categorical imperative: sexual acts must never treat persons merely as means. This could translate into a requirement for mutual respect and informed consent within covenantal relationships.
康德式性伦理 – 应用定言令式：性行为绝不将人只当作手段。这可转化为在盟约关系中的相互尊重和知情同意要求。
12. Pluralism, Secularism and Theology | 多元主义、世俗主义与神学
Exclusivism – The traditional Christian view that salvation is found only through explicit faith in Christ. Other religions do not mediate saving truth.
排他主义 – 传统基督教观点认为救恩只有通过对基督的明确信仰才能获得。其他宗教不传递拯救真理。
Inclusivism – Salvation is ontologically dependent on Christ’s work, but those of other faiths (or none) can be saved if they respond to the light they have received, an view associated with Rahner’s ‘anonymous Christians’.
包容主义 – 救恩在存有论上依赖于基督的工作，但其他信仰者（或无信仰者）若能回应他们所领受的光，也能得救，这一观点与拉纳的‘匿名基督徒’相关。
Pluralism (Hick) – The great world religions are equally valid responses to the same ultimate reality (the Real). Hick proposes that religious traditions are culturally conditioned lenses through which the divine is perceived.
多元主义（希克） – 各大世界宗教是对同一终极实在（the Real）同等有效的回应。希克提出，宗教传统是感知神圣的文化色彩透镜。
Secularism – The principle that religion should be separated from public institutions and the state. It poses challenges to religious ethics and the authority of religious language in the public square.
世俗主义 – 宗教应与公共机构和国家分离的原则。这对宗教伦理以及宗教语言在公共领域的权威构成挑战。
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