Year 12 AQA Business: Key Terminology Rapid Revision Guide | Year 12 AQA 商务：词汇术语速记指南

📚 Year 12 AQA Business: Key Terminology Rapid Revision Guide | Year 12 AQA 商务：词汇术语速记指南

Mastering key business terminology is essential for success in the Year 12 AQA Business course. This rapid revision guide presents core concepts across all major topics, pairing English definitions with Chinese explanations to reinforce understanding and aid memorisation.

掌握关键商务术语对于在 Year 12 AQA 商务课程中取得成功至关重要。本速记指南涵盖所有主要主题的核心概念，将英文定义与中文解释配对，以加深理解并帮助记忆。

1. What is Business? | 什么是企业？

Business – an organisation that provides goods or services to satisfy customer needs, often aiming to earn profit by adding value.

企业 – 为满足消费者需求而提供商品或服务的组织，通常通过创造附加价值来获取利润。核心逻辑：发现需求 + 提供产品 = 获取回报。

Entrepreneur – an individual who takes the risk of starting and running a business, organising resources to exploit an opportunity.

企业家 – 承担创业与经营风险、整合资源以捕捉机会的个人。关键词：风险承担与机会识别。

Added value – the difference between the cost of inputs and the selling price; it represents the increase in worth created through production.

附加价值 – 投入成本与销售价格之间的差额，体现生产过程中创造的增值。公式：售价 − 原材料成本。

Mission statement – a qualitative declaration of an organisation’s overarching purpose and its core values, guiding internal decisions.

使命宣言 – 定性描述组织根本宗旨与核心价值观的声明，为内部决策提供方向。通常简短而鼓舞人心。

Corporate objectives – measurable, medium- to long-term goals set by senior management to achieve the mission.

企业目标 – 由高层管理者设定的可衡量、中长期目标，服务于使命的实现。需与各职能目标协调一致。

Strategy – a long-term plan of action designed to achieve corporate objectives and outperform competitors.

战略 – 为达成企业目标、超越竞争对手而制定的长期行动方案。回答“我们要去哪里以及如何到达”。

Tactics – short-term, specific actions or steps taken to implement strategy.

战术 – 为执行战略而采取的短期、具体行动。战略决定方向，战术关注细节。

SWOT analysis – a framework assessing internal Strengths, Weaknesses and external Opportunities, Threats to inform strategic planning.

SWOT分析 – 评估内部优势、劣势与外部机会、威胁的框架，用于辅助战略规划。记住：SW内部，OT外部。

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2. Business Objectives | 企业目标

SMART objectives – goals that are Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Time-bound, ensuring clarity and accountability.

SMART目标 – 具体、可衡量、可实现、相关、有时限的目标，确保清晰度与可问责性。用这五个词检验目标质量。

Profit maximisation – the short-run objective of earning the highest possible profit, where marginal revenue equals marginal cost.

利润最大化 – 在短期内获取最大可能利润的目标，理论上边际收益等于边际成本时实现。

Survival – a primary objective for new or struggling firms, focusing on generating enough cash to keep operating.

生存 – 初创或困境企业的首要目标，核心是产生足够现金流以维持运营。比增长更基础。

Growth – an objective to expand sales, market share, or operational scale, often pursued after stability.

增长 – 扩大销售额、市场份额或运营规模的目标，通常在稳定后追求。可表现为有机增长或并购。

Market share – the percentage of total sales in a market held by one business; increasing it can strengthen pricing power.

市场份额 – 企业在整个市场销售额中所占的百分比；提升份额可增强议价能力和品牌影响力。

Cost efficiency – the goal of minimising unit costs without compromising quality, often through economies of scale or lean methods.

成本效率 – 在不损害质量的前提下尽量降低单位成本的目标，常借助规模经济或精益生产实现。

Employee welfare – an objective related to job satisfaction, working conditions and work-life balance, supporting retention.

员工福利 – 关注工作满意度、工作条件与工作生活平衡的目标，有助于留住人才。

Social and ethical objectives – goals linked to behaving responsibly towards stakeholders and the environment, beyond profit.

社会与道德目标 – 超越利润、对利益相关者和环境负责任的目标，如减少碳排放或公平贸易。

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3. Stakeholders | 利益相关者

Stakeholder – any individual or group with an interest in or affected by a business’s activities, including shareholders, employees, customers, suppliers and community.

利益相关者 – 与企业的活动有利害关系或受其影响的任何个人或群体，包括股东、员工、顾客、供应商和社区。记住是谁“押注”在企业上。

Internal stakeholders – those inside the business such as owners, managers and employees, who directly influence operations.

内部利益相关者 – 企业内部的业主、管理者和员工，直接影响运营，利益与日常决策紧密相连。

External stakeholders – groups outside the organisation, e.g. customers, suppliers, government, local community and pressure groups.

外部利益相关者 – 组织外部的群体，如顾客、供应商、政府、本地社区和压力团体，他们的期望约束企业行为。

Stakeholder mapping (Mendelow’s matrix) – a tool that classifies stakeholders by power and interest, helping prioritise engagement.

利益相关者地图（门德娄矩阵） – 按权力和利益将利益相关者分类的工具，指导企业优先与谁沟通。高权力高利益者需重点管理。

Stakeholder conflict – when the objectives of different stakeholder groups clash, e.g. shareholders wanting high dividends vs. employees wanting higher wages.

利益相关者冲突 – 不同利益相关者群体目标相互矛盾的情形，例如股东要分红而员工要加薪。权衡是管理的常态。

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4. Management and Leadership | 管理与领导力

Manager – someone who plans, organises, coordinates and controls resources to achieve set objectives, typically within defined roles.

管理者 – 负责计划、组织、协调和控制资源以达成既定目标的人，通常依据职位权力行事。

Leader – a person who inspires and influences others towards a vision, relying more on personal authority than formal position.

领导者 – 激励并影响他人朝着愿景前进的人，更多依靠个人权威而非职位权力。关键词：愿景与鼓舞。

Autocratic leadership – a style where the leader makes decisions unilaterally, expecting strict obedience; effective in crises.

专制型领导 – 领导者单方面决策、要求绝对服从的风格，危机时刻可快速反应，但可能压制创造力。

Democratic leadership – involving team members in decision-making, fostering motivation and ownership but slowing decisions.

民主型领导 – 让团队成员参与决策，能提升积极性和归属感，但决策速度较慢。

Laissez-faire leadership – a hands-off approach where staff have freedom to decide; best suited to highly skilled, self-motivated teams.

放任型领导 – 放手让员工自主决策的风格，适合高技能、自我驱动型团队，缺乏跟进可能导致混乱。

Tannenbaum-Schmidt continuum – a model showing a spectrum from boss-centred to subordinate-centred leadership, depending on forces in the manager, subordinates and situation.

坦南鲍姆-施密特连续统一体 – 展示从老板中心到下属中心的领导风格谱系，选择取决于管理者、下属和情境三种力量。

Blake Mouton grid – a managerial grid identifying five leadership styles based on concern for production and concern for people, with ‘team leader’ (9,9) being ideal.

布莱克-莫顿管理方格 – 基于对生产的关心和对人的关心划分五种领导风格的方格，团队型 (9,9) 被认为最理想。

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5. Decision Making | 决策制定

Scientific decision making – a logical, data-driven approach based on setting objectives, gathering data, analysing options, selecting and reviewing.

科学决策 – 基于设定目标、收集数据、分析选项、选择并审核的逻辑化、数据驱动方法。可总结为“决策循环”。

Intuition (hunch decision making) – decisions based on gut feeling or experience, often used when time or data is limited.

直觉决策 – 凭借经验或直觉做出的判断，常在时间紧迫或数据缺乏时采用。风险在于主观偏见。

Decision tree – a diagram showing different options, probabilities, expected values and net gains to support choices.

决策树 – 展示不同选项、概率、期望值与净收益的图形，帮助做出理性选择。必须计算期望值。

Expected value = (Probability × Payoff) − Cost of action

期望值 = (概率 × 收益) − 行动成本

Net gain – the financial benefit after subtracting the cost of the chosen option; helps compare competing branches in a decision tree.

净收益 – 扣除所选方案成本后的财务收益，用于在决策树中比较不同分支的优劣。

Opportunity cost – the value of the next best alternative forgone when a choice is made, reminding us every decision involves a trade-off.

机会成本 – 选择某方案时所放弃的次优方案的价值，时刻提醒我们每个决策都含有取舍。

Risks, rewards and uncertainty – factors that influence decisions; businesses assess potential gains against the probability and impact of negative outcomes.

风险、回报与不确定性 – 影响决策的因素；企业需要权衡潜在收益与不利后果的概率及影响。

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6. Marketing: The Marketing Mix | 市场营销：营销组合

Marketing mix (7Ps) – the set of controllable elements – Product, Price, Place, Promotion, People, Process, Physical evidence – used to satisfy target customers.

营销组合 (7Ps) – 产品、价格、渠道、促销、人员、过程和有形展示这七个可控要素，用于满足目标顾客需求。从4P到7P，服务维度不可或缺。

Unique selling point (USP) – a feature or benefit that makes a product distinct from competitors, giving customers a compelling reason to buy.

独特卖点 (USP) – 将产品与竞争者区分开的特征或利益，为顾客提供强有力的购买理由。问：“为何选我？”

Product life cycle – the stages of introduction, growth, maturity, and decline through which a product typically passes, each requiring different strategies.

产品生命周期 – 产品经历的导入、成长、成熟和衰退阶段，每阶段需要调整营销策略以延长寿命。

Boston Matrix – a portfolio model categorising products into Stars, Cash Cows, Question Marks and Dogs based on market growth and market share.

波士顿矩阵 – 按市场增长率和市场份额将产品分为明星、金牛、问号和瘦狗的投资组合模型，指导资源分配。

Star – high growth, high share	明星 – 高增长，高份额
Cash Cow – low growth, high share	金牛 – 低增长，高份额
Question Mark – high growth, low share	问号 – 高增长，低份额
Dog – low growth, low share	瘦狗 – 低增长，低份额

Pricing strategies – methods such as price skimming (high initial price), penetration pricing (low price to gain share), competitive pricing, cost-plus and psychological pricing.

定价策略 – 撇脂定价（高初始价）、渗透定价（低价抢占市场）、竞争性定价、成本加成和心理定价等方法。选择取决于目标与产品定位。

Promotional mix – the blend of advertising, sales promotion, personal selling, public relations and direct marketing used to communicate with customers.

促销组合 – 广告、促销活动、人员推销、公共关系和直接营销等沟通手段的有机组合，旨在达成传播目标。

Distribution channels – the path products take from producer to consumer, e.g. direct selling, retailers, wholesalers, or multi-channel approaches.

分销渠道 – 产品从生产者到消费者手中经过的路径，如直销、零售商、批发商或多渠道策略，影响可达性和成本。

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7. Marketing: Market Research and Segmentation | 市场研究与细分

Primary research (field research) – collection of firsthand data tailored to specific needs, e.g. surveys, interviews, focus groups, observations.

一手研究（实地调研） – 针对特定需求收集的第一手数据，如问卷调查、访谈、焦点小组和观察，信息针对性强但成本较高。

Secondary research (desk research) – gathering existing data from internal records, government publications, industry reports or the internet; faster and cheaper but may be outdated.

二手研究（案头调研） – 从内部记录、政府出版物、行业报告或互联网获取已有数据，速度快、成本低，但可能过时或不完全匹配。

Quantitative data – numerical information that can be statistically analysed, e.g. sales figures, market size, percentages.

定量数据 – 可以统计分析的数值型信息，如销售数字、市场规模、百分比，回答“有多少”的问题。

Qualitative data – non-numerical insights into opinions, attitudes and motivations, gathered through open-ended questions.

定性数据 – 关于观点、态度和动机的非数值洞察，多通过开放式问题收集，回答“为什么”和“怎么想”。

Sampling – choosing a representative group of respondents; methods include random, stratified, quota and convenience sampling.

抽样 – 选取有代表性的受访者群体；方法包括随机抽样、分层抽样、配额抽样和便利抽样。样本质量决定研究信度。

Market segmentation – dividing a market into distinct groups of buyers with different needs or characteristics, e.g. demographic, geographic, psychographic, behavioural.

市场细分 – 按不同需求或特征将市场划分为不同购买者群体的过程，如人口统计、地理、心理和行为细分。帮助精准定位。

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8. Operations Management | 运营管理

Operational objectives – targets for efficiency and effectiveness such as unit cost reduction, quality levels, speed of response, flexibility, dependability and environmental goals.

运营目标 – 有关效率与成效的指标，如降低单位成本、质量水平、响应速度、灵活性、可靠性和环保目标。六维度记忆法。

Labour-intensive production – reliance on human workers rather than machinery, common where personal skills and customisation are key.

劳动密集型生产 – 依赖人力而非机器，常见于强调个人技艺与定制化的领域。人力成本占比高。

Capital-intensive production – heavy use of machinery and technology, offering high output and consistency but requires large investment.

资本密集型生产 – 大量使用机器和技术，产量高、一致性佳，但需要大额投资，常见于汽车制造等行业。

Capacity utilisation – the percentage of a firm’s total possible output that is actually being used. Formula: (Current output ÷ Maximum capacity) × 100%.

产能利用率 – 实际产出占最大可能产能的百分比。公式：(当前产量 ÷ 最大产能) × 100%。利用率过低浪费资源，过高压力大。

Lean production – an approach aiming to eliminate waste and improve flow, encompassing techniques like Just-in-Time (JIT) and Kaizen (continuous improvement).

精益生产 – 旨在消除浪费、改善流动的方法，包含准时制生产 (JIT) 和持续改善 (Kaizen) 等技巧。核心是“只做有价值的”。

Just-in-Time (JIT) – inventory system where materials arrive exactly when needed, reducing holding costs but risking supply disruption.

准时制 (JIT) – 原材料在精确需要时送达的库存体系，降低持有成本，但需高度信赖的供应链以防中断。

Kaizen – continuous small-step improvements involving all employees, fostering a culture of ongoing problem-solving.

改善 (Kaizen) – 全员参与的渐进式持续改进，形成不断解决问题的文化。关键词：积小胜为大胜。

Quality control vs. Quality assurance vs. TQM – inspection at the end (QC), prevention built into process (QA), and whole-organisation commitment to quality (TQM).

质量控制 vs. 质量保证 vs. 全面质量管理 – 终点检验 (QC)、过程中预防 (QA)、全组织致力于质量的文化 (TQM)。三者递进，从发现到预防。

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9. Finance: Costs, Revenue and Profit | 财务：成本、收入与利润

Fixed costs – expenses that do not vary with output in the short run, e.g. rent, salaries of permanent staff, insurance.

固定成本 – 短期内不随产量变化的开支，如租金、固定员工薪金和保险费。记住“产量变，我不变”。

Variable costs – costs that change directly with the level of production, e.g. raw materials, packaging, piece-rate wages.

可变成本 – 随产量直接变动的成本，如原材料、包装和计件工资。与固定成本相对，共同构成总成本。

Total costs – sum of fixed and variable costs at any given output level.

总成本 – 任一产量水平下固定成本与可变成本的总和。TC = FC + VC。

Revenue – income generated from selling goods or services, calculated as Selling price × Quantity sold.

收入 – 销售商品或服务所得，计算为：售价 × 销售量。它不等于利润，要扣除成本。

Profit – the positive difference between total revenue and total costs. Formula: Profit = Total revenue − Total costs.

利润 – 总收入减去总成本的差额。利润 = 总收入 − 总成本，是企业生存发展的血液。

Contribution – the amount each unit sold contributes towards fixed costs and profit; calculated as Selling price − Variable cost per unit.

贡献毛利 – 每销售一单位产品对固定成本和利润的贡献额，计算为：售价 − 单位可变成本。用于分析保本和盈利。

Break-even point – the level of output at which total revenue equals total costs, yielding zero profit/loss. Formula:

Break-even output = Fixed costs ÷ (Selling price − Variable cost per unit)

盈亏平衡产量 = 固定成本 ÷ (售价 − 单位可变成本)

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