📚 Year 12 CAIE Politics: Key Terminology Fast-Learn Guide | CAIE 12年级政治：核心术语速记手册
Mastering political terminology is the foundation of success in CAIE Year 12 Government and Politics. Concepts such as power, legitimacy, parliamentary sovereignty, and judicial review are not just vocabulary items; they are analytical tools that underpin essay writing and source evaluation. This guide breaks down the most frequently tested terms into clear definitions, supported by contextual examples, so you can recall and apply them with confidence under exam conditions.
掌握政治术语是CAIE 12年级政府与政治课程成功的基石。权力、合法性、议会主权、司法审查等概念不仅是词汇条目，更是支撑论文写作和材料分析的分析工具。本指南将最常考查的术语分解为清晰的定义，并提供情境示例，让你能在考试环境下自信地回忆并运用它们。
1. Foundational Concepts: Power, Authority and Coercion | 基本概念：权力、权威与强制
Power is the ability of an individual or group to influence the behaviour of others, even against their will. It can be exercised through coercion, persuasion, or manipulation, and does not necessarily require consent. For example, a government may use police force to enforce a lockdown.
权力 是个人或群体影响他人行为的能力，即使违背对方意愿。它可以通过强制、说服或操纵来行使，并不必然要求同意。例如，政府可动用警力执行封锁令。
Authority refers to legitimate power – the right to influence others because they accept that the wielder has a justified claim to rule. Max Weber distinguished three types: traditional (custom, monarchy), charismatic (personal magnetism), and legal-rational (based on codified rules and office).
权威 指合法权力——基于被统治者接受统治者拥有正当统治主张而产生的支配权。马克斯·韦伯区分了三种类型：传统型（习俗、君主制）、魅力型（个人吸引力）和法理型（基于成文规则与职位）。
Coercion involves forcing someone to act in a particular way through threats, violence, or intimidation. Unlike authority, coercion lacks legitimacy and relies on fear, making it a fragile basis for political order.
强制 是通过威胁、暴力或恐吓强迫他人按特定方式行事。与权威不同，强制缺乏合法性，依赖恐惧，因而是一种脆弱的政治秩序基础。
2. The State, Government and Nation | 国家、政府与民族
The state is the set of permanent institutions that exercise sovereign power over a defined territory and population. It includes the civil service, judiciary, police, and military, and claims a monopoly on the legitimate use of force.
国家 是对界定领土与人口行使主权的一整套常设机构。它包括公务员队伍、司法机构、警察和军队，并主张对合法强制力的垄断。
Government is the temporary political administration that runs the state at a given time. In a democracy, governments change after elections, but the state remains continuous.
政府 是在特定时期管理国家的临时性政治行政机构。在民主制度下，选举后政府可更迭，但国家保持延续。
A nation is a group of people bound together by shared culture, language, history, or ethnicity, who often aspire to political self-determination. A nation-state exists when the boundaries of a state largely coincide with those of a single nation.
民族 是由共同文化、语言、历史或族裔联系在一起的群体，常渴望政治自决。当一个国家的疆界大体与单一民族重合时，即为民族国家。
3. Legitimacy and Sovereignty | 合法性与主权
Legitimacy is the belief that a government has the right to rule and that its commands ought to be obeyed. Legitimacy can stem from elections, constitutional continuity, or public consent, and is essential for stable governance without excessive coercion.
合法性 是指人们相信一个政府有统治的权利且其命令应被服从。合法性可源自选举、宪制延续或公众同意，对于无需过度强制而实现稳定治理至关重要。
Sovereignty is the ultimate and unchallengeable authority within a territory. In legal terms, parliamentary sovereignty in the UK means that Parliament can make or repeal any law and no other body can override it. External sovereignty refers to a state’s independence from foreign control.
主权 是领土内最高且不可挑战的权威。在法律上，英国的议会主权意味着议会可以制定或废除任何法律，且无其他机构可以否决。对外主权则指国家不受外国控制的独立地位。
Popular sovereignty locates the ultimate authority in the people, who delegate power to elected representatives. It underpins democratic legitimacy and is often cited in constitutional debates, such as whether the people or parliament holds final authority.
人民主权 将最终权威置于人民手中，人民将权力委托给选举产生的代表。它支撑着民主合法性，常在宪法辩论中被援引，例如是人民还是议会拥有最终决定权。
4. Democracy: Types and Principles | 民主：类型与原则
Direct democracy is a system in which citizens vote on laws and policies themselves, without intermediaries. Classical Athens practised a form of direct democracy; today, referendums are the most common expression of the principle.
直接民主 是公民亲自对法律和政策进行投票、无需中间人的制度。古典雅典实行过某种形式的直接民主；今天，公投是该原则最常见的体现。
Representative democracy is the dominant model in the modern world, where citizens elect officials to make decisions on their behalf. This system is designed to balance popular participation with expert governance, but risks the principal–agent problem if representatives ignore voters’ wishes.
代议制民主 是当今世界的主流模式，公民选举官员代表自己做出决策。该制度旨在平衡民众参与和专家治理，但如果代表无视选民意愿，便存在委托—代理问题。
Liberal democracy adds to representative structures a set of protections: free and fair elections, rule of law, protection of individual rights, and checks on executive power. It is contrasted with illiberal democracy, where elections occur but civil liberties are routinely violated.
自由民主制 在代议结构上增加了一系列保障：自由公正的选举、法治、个人权利保护以及行政权制约。与之相对的是非自由民主，即虽有选举但公民自由常遭侵犯。
Pluralism describes a political culture where power is dispersed among many competing groups, ensuring no single elite dominates. It is a hallmark of healthy liberal democracies, sustained by a vibrant civil society and multiple access points to government.
多元主义 描述的是权力分散在众多竞争性团体间的政治文化，确保没有单一精英集团能垄断权力。它是健康自由民主的标志，由充满活力的公民社会和多元政府接触途径所维系。
5. Constitutions: Codification and the Rule of Law | 宪法：法典化与法治
A constitution is a set of fundamental rules that establish the duties, powers, and functions of government institutions and define the relationship between the state and the individual. It may be written or unwritten, rigid or flexible.
宪法 是一套确立政府机构职责、权力与职能并界定国家与个人关系的根本规则。它可以是成文或不成文的，也可以是刚性或柔性的。
Codified constitution means the rules are enshrined in a single legal document, entrenched by a higher law, and typically protected by a constitutional court. The US Constitution is the classic example. Uncodified constitution comprises multiple sources – statutes, conventions, common law – and can be altered by ordinary legislative processes, as in the UK.
成文宪法 指规则被载入单一法律文件，由高级法所确立，并通常由宪法法院保护。美国宪法是经典范例。不成文宪法 由多种来源——制定法、惯例、普通法——构成，并可通过普通立法程序改变，如英国所示。
The rule of law is the principle that all individuals and institutions, including the government, are subject to and accountable under the law. A.V. Dicey’s formulation emphasised the absence of arbitrary power, equality before the law, and rights secured by judicial decisions.
法治 是所有人及机构（包括政府）均受法律约束并须依法负责的原则。戴雪提出的法治强调无专断权力、法律面前人人平等以及由司法裁决保障的权利。
6. Parliamentary System and Parliamentary Sovereignty | 议会制与议会主权
Parliamentary system is a form of government where the executive is drawn from and accountable to the legislature. In the UK, the Prime Minister and Cabinet must retain the confidence of the House of Commons to govern.
议会制 是一种行政机构产生于立法机关并对其负责的政府形式。在英国，首相与内阁必须保持下议院的信任才能治理。
Parliamentary sovereignty (also called parliamentary supremacy) is the doctrine that Parliament is the supreme legal authority; it can make or unmake any law, and no court or external body can strike down its statutes. This principle was famously articulated by A.V. Dicey and remains a cornerstone of the UK constitution, albeit questioned by EU membership, devolution, and human rights legislation.
议会主权（亦称议会至上）是议会为最高法律权威的学说；它可以制定或废止任何法律，没有任何法院或外部机构能推翻其法律。该原则由戴雪著名地阐述，至今仍是英国宪法的基石，尽管受到欧盟成员身份、权力下放和人权立法的质疑。
Fusion of powers exists in the UK where the executive and legislative branches are intermingled: government ministers are members of Parliament. This contrasts with the separation of powers found in presidential systems, where the three branches are institutionally independent.
权力融合 存在于英国，即行政与立法分支相互交融：政府大臣由议员兼任。这与总统制中的三权分立形成对比，后者三大分支机构独立。
7. The Executive: Prime Minister and Cabinet | 行政机关：首相与内阁
The executive is the branch of government responsible for implementing law and policy. In the UK, the core executive comprises the Prime Minister, Cabinet, senior civil servants, and key advisors.
行政机关 是负责执行法律和政策的政府分支。在英国，核心行政团队包括首相、内阁、高级公务员和重要顾问。
Prime ministerial government thesis holds that the PM has become dominant, with decision-making concentrated in No.10, marginalising the Cabinet. Scholars point to the growth of special advisors (SPADs) and control over media. In contrast, Cabinet government suggests that major decisions are still made collectively, imposing limits on the premier’s power.
首相政府论 认为首相已居主导地位，决策集中于唐宁街10号，使得内阁边缘化。学者指出特别顾问的增多和对媒体的控制。与之相对，内阁政府论 认为重大决策仍集体作出，从而限制首相权力。
Individual ministerial responsibility is the convention that ministers are accountable to Parliament for their own actions and the running of their departments. Collective ministerial responsibility requires all ministers to publicly support Cabinet decisions or resign, ensuring the government speaks with one voice.
个人大臣责任制 是大臣对其个人行为及部门运转向议会负责的惯例。集体大臣责任制 要求全体大臣公开支持内阁决议，否则辞职，从而保证政府对外用一个声音说话。
8. The Judiciary and Judicial Review | 司法机构与司法审查
Judicial independence is the principle that judges should be free from political interference, guaranteed by security of tenure, fixed salaries, and appointment by an independent commission. It underpins the rule of law and public confidence.
司法独立 是法官应不受政治干预的原则，通过职位保障、固定薪酬及独立委员会任命来保证。它支撑着法治及公众信心。
Judicial review is the power of courts to review the legality of decisions made by public bodies. In the UK, judges cannot strike down primary legislation due to parliamentary sovereignty, but they can review executive actions for procedural fairness, illegality, or irrationality and may issue a declaration of incompatibility under the Human Rights Act 1998.
司法审查 是法院审查公共机构决策合法性的权力。在英国，因议会主权，法官不能推翻初级立法，但可以审查行政行为是否程序公正、违法或不合情理，并可根据1998年《人权法》发出不符判决宣告。
Judicial activism refers to judges interpreting law in ways that effectively create new policy, sometimes seen as stepping into the legislature’s domain. It is often contrasted with judicial restraint, where judges defer to elected branches.
司法能动主义 指法官通过法律解释实际创设新政策，有时被视为侵入立法领域。常与司法克制 相对，后者法官遵从民选分支。
9. Political Participation, Parties and Electoral Systems | 政治参与、政党与选举制度
Political participation covers the ways citizens engage with politics, from voting and party membership to protest and digital activism. High participation is seen as an indicator of a healthy democracy; declining turnout and membership are causes for concern in many states.
政治参与 涵盖公民接触政治的各种方式，从投票、政党加入，到抗议和数字行动主义。高参与度被视为健康民主的指标；许多国家投票率与党员人数下降引发担忧。
A political party is an organised group that seeks to acquire and exercise government power by fielding candidates in elections. Parties aggregate interests, formulate policy, and provide a mechanism for accountability, often reflecting a broad ideological tradition.
政党 是试图通过提名候选人参加选举而获取并行使政府权力的有组织团体。政党聚合利益、制定政策并提供问责机制，通常反映宽泛的意识形态传统。
| System | Description | 描述 |
| First Past the Post (FPTP) | The candidate with the most votes in a single-member constituency wins. It tends to produce stable majority governments but exaggerates the lead of larger parties and leads to many wasted votes. | 单一选区得票最多者当选。倾向产生稳定多数政府，但放大较大政党优势并产生大量废票。 |
| Proportional Representation (PR) | Seats are allocated in proportion to the votes cast. Variants include party-list PR and the Single Transferable Vote (STV). PR often leads to coalition governments and greater minor-party representation. | 席位按照得票比例分配。变体包括政党名单比例代表制和单记可让渡投票制。常导致联合政府，小党代表性强。 |
| Additional Member System (AMS) | A hybrid system where voters cast two votes: one for a constituency MP (FPTP) and one for a party list (PR component). Used in Scottish Parliament and Welsh Senedd elections. | 混合制：选民投两票，一票选选区议员（FPTP），一票选政党名单（比例部分）。苏格兰议会和威尔士议会选举采用。 |
Mandate is the authority granted by the electorate to a winning party to implement its manifesto pledges. The strength and clarity of a mandate depend on the electoral system and the size of the victory.
授权 是选民赋予获胜政党实施其竞选纲领承诺的权限。授权的强度与清晰度取决于选举制度和胜选规模。
10. Pressure Groups and Key Ideological Families | 压力团体与主要意识形态家族
Pressure groups are organisations that seek to influence government policy without seeking election. Interest groups (also called sectional groups) promote the material interests of a specific section of society, such as trade unions or professional bodies. Cause groups (promotional groups) champion issues for the wider good, like environmental or human rights organisations.
压力团体 是试图影响政府政策但不争取选举职位的组织。利益团体（也称功能团体）促进特定社会阶层的物质利益，如工会或专业机构。倡导团体 则为更广泛的公益事业而奋斗，如环境保护或人权组织。
Insider groups are regularly consulted by government and operate through formal channels, while outsider groups lack such access and often resort to direct action, media campaigns, or lobbying from the outside.
内部团体 经常被政府征询，通过正式渠道运作；外部团体 则缺乏这类接触，常诉诸直接行动、媒体造势或外部游说。
Ideological terminology also appears across the AS specification. Here are three foundational traditions:
意识形态术语也出现在AS考纲中。以下是三个基础传统：
Liberalism emphasises individual freedom, limited government, and equality of opportunity. Classical liberals champion negative freedom (freedom from interference), while modern liberals accept a more active state to promote positive freedom (the capacity to flourish).
自由主义 强调个人自由、有限政府与机会平等。古典自由派推崇消极自由（免于干涉的自由），而现代自由主义者接纳更积极的政府以促进积极自由（得以发展的能力）。
Conservatism values tradition, authority, and social order. One-nation conservatives support a paternalistic state to reduce inequality, whereas the New Right combines neoliberal economics with traditional social values.
保守主义 珍视传统、权威和社会秩序。一国保守主义支持家长式国家以减少不平等，而新右派则将新自由主义经济学与传统社会价值观结合。
Socialism advocates for greater social equality through collective action or state intervention. Social democrats seek reform within capitalism (mixed economy, welfare state), while Marxists aim to replace capitalism with common ownership of the means of production.
社会主义 主张通过集体行动或国家干预追求更高的社会平等。社会民主主义者寻求在资本主义内部改革（混合经济、福利国家），而马克思主义者旨在以生产资料公有制取代资本主义。
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