📚 Year 12 SQA Accounting: Formula & Theorem Quick Reference Guide | Year 12 SQA 会计公式定理速查手册
This quick-reference guide compiles the essential formulas and theorems required for the SQA Higher Accounting course (Year 12). Understanding these calculations is crucial for analysing financial performance, making informed business decisions and preparing accurate financial statements. Each section presents key formulas alongside concise explanations to support your revision and exam success.
本速查手册汇编了 SQA 高级会计课程（Year 12）所需的核心公式与定理。理解这些计算方法对于分析财务业绩、做出明智的商业决策以及编制准确的财务报表至关重要。每个部分都列出了关键公式并附带简明解释，帮助您巩固复习并在考试中取得佳绩。
1. Profitability Ratios | 盈利能力比率
Profitability ratios measure how effectively a business generates profit from its resources. They are essential for assessing management performance and comparing results against competitors or industry benchmarks. The most common profitability formulas relate profit to sales, assets or equity.
盈利能力比率衡量企业利用资源创造利润的有效性。这些比率对于评估管理层业绩、将结果与竞争对手或行业基准进行比较至关重要。最常见的盈利能力公式将利润与销售额、资产或权益联系起来。
Gross profit margin shows the percentage of sales revenue remaining after deducting cost of goods sold. A higher margin suggests stronger pricing power or efficient production.
毛利率显示扣除销货成本后剩余的销售收入百分比。毛利率越高，说明定价能力越强或生产效率越高。
Gross Profit Margin = (Gross Profit ÷ Revenue) × 100%
Net profit margin reflects the overall profitability after all operating expenses, interest and taxes. It answers how much of each pound of revenue becomes net profit.
净利润率反映扣除所有营业费用、利息和税金后的整体盈利能力。它揭示了每一英镑收入中有多少转化为净利润。
Net Profit Margin = (Net Profit before Tax ÷ Revenue) × 100%
Return on Capital Employed (ROCE) evaluates the return generated on the long-term funds invested in the business. Capital employed is typically defined as total equity plus non-current liabilities, or total assets minus current liabilities.
资本运用回报率 (ROCE) 评估企业长期投入资金所创造的回报。资本运用通常定义为总权益加非流动负债，或总资产减去流动负债。
ROCE = (Operating Profit ÷ Capital Employed) × 100%
Capital Employed = Total Equity + Non‑current Liabilities
Return on Equity (ROE) focuses on the return to ordinary shareholders. It is widely used by investors to gauge how effectively a company reinvests its earnings.
股本回报率 (ROE) 关注普通股股东的回报。投资者广泛使用该指标来衡量公司再投资利润的效率。
ROE = (Net Profit after Tax ÷ Total Equity) × 100%
2. Liquidity Ratios | 流动性比率
Liquidity ratios assess a company’s ability to meet its short‑term obligations as they fall due. Sufficient liquidity is vital for day‑to‑day survival and for maintaining good relationships with suppliers and lenders.
流动性比率评估公司履行到期短期债务的能力。充足的流动性对于日常生存、维持与供应商和贷款方的良好关系至关重要。
The current ratio compares total current assets to current liabilities. A ratio below 1 signals potential cash flow problems, while a very high ratio may indicate inefficient use of assets.
流动比率将流动资产总额与流动负债进行比较。比率低于 1 预示可能存在现金流问题，而极高的比率可能意味着资产未得到有效利用。
Current Ratio = Current Assets ÷ Current Liabilities
The acid test (quick) ratio excludes inventory because it is not always easily convertible to cash. This provides a stricter test of immediate liquidity.
速动（酸性测试）比率剔除了存货，因为存货不一定能迅速转化为现金。这提供了更严格的即时流动性检验。
Acid Test Ratio = (Current Assets − Inventory) ÷ Current Liabilities
3. Efficiency Ratios | 效率比率
Efficiency ratios indicate how well a business manages its assets and liabilities. They help identify whether the company is controlling stock levels, collecting debts promptly and using its resources productively.
效率比率显示企业管理资产和负债的能力。它们有助于判断公司是否有效控制存货水平、及时收回应收账款以及高效运用资源。
Inventory turnover shows how many times the business sells and replaces its stock during a period. A higher turnover means inventory is moving quickly, reducing holding costs and obsolescence risks.
存货周转率显示企业在一个期间内销售和重置存货的次数。周转率越高，说明存货流动速度快，降低了持有成本与过时风险。
Inventory Turnover (times) = Cost of Sales ÷ Average Inventory
Trade receivable days (debtor days) measure the average time taken to collect cash from credit customers. Fewer days indicate better credit control.
应收贸易账款天数（债务人天数）衡量向赊销客户收取现金的平均耗时。天数越短表明信用控制越好。
Trade Receivable Days = (Trade Receivables ÷ Credit Sales) × 365
Trade payable days (creditor days) indicate how long the business takes to pay its suppliers. Longer periods may improve cash flow but could damage supplier relationships if excessive.
应付贸易账款天数（债权人天数）反映企业向供应商付款的平均时间。较长的期限可以节省现金流，但如果过长可能损害供应商关系。
Trade Payable Days = (Trade Payables ÷ Credit Purchases) × 365
Asset turnover measures how efficiently a company uses its net assets to generate sales. A high ratio suggests effective utilisation of capital.
资产周转率衡量企业利用净资产创造销售的效率。高比率表明资本得到有效利用。
Asset Turnover = Revenue ÷ Net Assets (or Capital Employed)
4. Investment Ratios | 投资比率
Investment ratios help shareholders and potential investors evaluate the attractiveness of a company’s shares. They link market price, earnings and dividends to assess performance and return.
投资比率帮助股东和潜在投资者评估公司股票的吸引力。它们将市场价格、收益和股息联系起来，以衡量业绩和回报。
Earnings per share (EPS) indicates the profit attributable to each ordinary share. A rising EPS often signals improving profitability.
每股收益 (EPS) 表示每普通股应占利润。EPS 不断上升通常意味着盈利能力增强。
EPS = (Profit after Tax − Preference Dividends) ÷ Number of Ordinary Shares
The price/earnings (P/E) ratio relates the market price of a share to its EPS. It reflects investors’ expectations of future growth.
市盈率 (P/E) 将股票市价与其每股收益联系起来。它反映了投资者对未来增长的预期。
P/E Ratio = Market Price per Share ÷ EPS
Dividend yield expresses the annual dividend as a percentage of the share price, showing the cash return on investment.
股息率将年度股息表示为股价的百分比，代表投资的现金回报。
Dividend Yield = (Dividend per Share ÷ Market Price per Share) × 100%
Dividend cover measures how many times the profit covers the dividend payment. A higher cover suggests the dividend is safe and the company retains earnings for growth.
股息保障倍数衡量利润覆盖股息支付的倍数。保障倍数越高，说明股息安全性越高，公司保留了更多收益用于发展。
Dividend Cover = EPS ÷ Dividend per Share
5. Break-even Analysis | 盈亏平衡分析
Break-even analysis is a cornerstone of managerial accounting. It determines the level of sales needed to cover all costs, helping managers plan production, set prices and evaluate risk.
盈亏平衡分析是管理会计的基石。它确定覆盖全部成本所需的销售水平，有助于管理者规划生产、制定价格并评估风险。
Contribution per unit is the amount each sale contributes towards covering fixed costs after variable costs are paid. It is the engine behind break-even calculations.
单位贡献毛益是每笔销售在支付变动成本后对固定成本的贡献额。它是盈亏平衡计算的核心驱动力。
Contribution per Unit = Selling Price − Variable Cost per Unit
Break-even point in units tells you how many items must be sold to achieve exactly zero profit or loss. It is found by dividing total fixed costs by the contribution per unit.
盈亏平衡点（销量）显示必须销售多少件产品才能实现零利润或零亏损。它由总固定成本除以单位贡献毛益得出。
Break‑even Point (units) = Fixed Costs ÷ Contribution per Unit
Break-even point in revenue can be computed using the contribution to sales (C/S) ratio. This is useful for multi‑product businesses.
盈亏平衡点（销售额）可利用贡献毛益率 (C/S 比率) 计算。这适用于多产品企业。
C/S Ratio = (Contribution per Unit ÷ Selling Price) × 100%
Break‑even Revenue = Fixed Costs ÷ C/S Ratio
Margin of safety indicates how much sales can fall before the business reaches its break-even point. A larger margin means lower risk.
安全边际表明销售额在达到盈亏平衡点之前可以下降的幅度。安全边际越大，风险越低。
Margin of Safety = Actual Sales − Break‑even Sales
6. Inventory Valuation Methods | 存货估值方法
Inventory valuation directly affects cost of sales and reported profit. SQA candidates must be able to apply FIFO (First‑In‑First‑Out), LIFO (Last‑In‑First‑Out) and AVCO (Average Cost) correctly, and understand how each method impacts financial statements during periods of changing prices.
存货估值直接影响销货成本和报告的利润。SQA 考生必须能够正确应用先进先出法 (FIFO)、后进先出法 (LIFO) 和移动平均成本法 (AVCO)，并理解在价格变动期间每种方法如何影响财务报表。
Under FIFO, the oldest stock is assumed to be sold first. Closing inventory is valued at the most recent purchase prices, which means rising prices lead to higher closing stock values and lower cost of sales.
在先进先出法下，假设最早购入的存货最先售出。期末存货按最近购入价格计价，这意味着在价格上涨时，期末存货价值偏高，而销货成本偏低。
Under LIFO, the newest stock is sold first. Closing inventory is valued at older prices, so during inflation LIFO gives a higher cost of sales and a lower reported profit, reducing tax liability.
在后进先出法下，最新购入的存货最先售出。期末存货按较早价格计价，因此在通货膨胀期间 LIFO 会产生较高的销货成本和较低的账面利润，从而降低税负。
The AVCO method recalculates a weighted average cost after every purchase. It smooths price fluctuations and gives inventory values between FIFO and LIFO results. The formula for the average cost per unit is:
平均成本法在每次购货后重新计算加权平均成本。该方法平滑了价格波动，存货价值介于 FIFO 和 LIFO 之间。单位平均成本的计算公式为：
Weighted Average Cost = Total Cost of Goods Available for Sale ÷ Total Units Available
7. Depreciation Methods | 折旧方法
Depreciation allocates the cost of a non‑current asset over its useful life. It matches expense to revenue generation, ensuring that profit is not overstated in the early years of asset use. Two principal methods are examined at SQA Higher level: straight‑line and reducing balance.
折旧将非流动资产成本在其使用寿命内分摊。它将费用与收入创造相匹配，避免在资产使用早期虚增利润。SQA 高级课程主要考查两种方法：直线法和余额递减法。
The straight‑line method spreads the depreciable amount equally across the asset’s expected life. It is simple, predictable and suitable for assets that provide consistent benefits over time.
直线法将可折旧金额在资产预计使用期内平均分摊。该方法简单、可预测，适合随时间稳定提供效益的资产。
Annual Depreciation (Straight‑line) = (Cost − Residual Value) ÷ Useful Life (years)
The reducing balance method applies a fixed percentage to the carrying amount (net book value) each year. It results in higher depreciation charges in the early years, matching the typical pattern of an asset consuming more economic benefits when new.
余额递减法每年将固定百分比应用于账面净值。这使得初期折旧费用较高，符合资产较新时消耗更多经济利益的典型模式。
Depreciation Charge = Carrying Amount × Depreciation Rate (%)
8. Budgeting Formulae | 预算编制公式
Budgeting translates business plans into numerical targets. Master budgets often include cash budgets, production budgets and budgeted financial statements. Key formulas help managers predict closing balances and plan for cash surpluses or deficits.
预算将商业计划转化为量化目标。总预算通常包括现金预算、生产预算和预算财务报表。关键公式帮助管理者预测期末余额，并为现金盈余或赤字做出规划。
The closing cash balance is the essential outcome of a cash budget. It highlights whether additional financing is needed or surplus funds are available for investment.
期末现金余额是现金预算的核心结果。它揭示是否需要额外融资，或者是否有盈余资金可用于投资。
Closing Cash Balance = Opening Cash + Total Receipts − Total Payments
Production budgets rely on the relationship between required sales and inventory levels. Ensuring sufficient finished goods to meet demand while controlling stockholding costs is a key operational challenge.
生产预算依赖所需销售量和库存水平之间的关系。确保有充足成品满足需求的同时控制库存持有成本，是一项关键的运营挑战。
Required Production (units) = Budgeted Sales + Closing Inventory − Opening Inventory
9. Overhead Absorption | 间接费用吸收
Overhead absorption is the process of spreading indirect production costs across units of output. This ensures that each product carries a fair share of overheads, enabling more accurate product costing under absorption costing.
间接费用吸收是将间接生产成本分摊到产品单位的过程。这样确保每种产品合理承担间接费用，从而使吸收成本法下的产品成本核算更为准确。
The overhead absorption rate (OAR) is calculated before the period begins using budgeted figures. It can be based on labour hours, machine hours or units produced.
间接费用吸收率 (OAR) 在期初使用预算数据计算。它可能基于人工小时、机器小时或产量。
OAR = Budgeted Total Overheads ÷ Budgeted Activity Level
Common activity bases include direct labour hours and machine hours. The choice depends on whether production is labour‑intensive or capital‑intensive.
常见的作业量基础包括直接人工小时和机器小时。选择取决于生产是劳动密集型还是资本密集型。
OAR per Labour Hour = Budgeted Overheads ÷ Budgeted Direct Labour Hours
OAR per Machine Hour = Budgeted Overheads ÷ Budgeted Machine Hours
10. Marginal vs. Absorption Costing | 边际成本法与吸收成本法
Marginal costing and absorption costing treat fixed production overheads differently. Marginal costing charges fixed overheads entirely to the period, while absorption costing includes them in product costs via the OAR. Understanding the profit difference between the two methods is a key Higher Accounting topic.
边际成本法和吸收成本法对固定生产间接费用的处理不同。边际成本法将固定间接费用全部计入当期费用，而吸收成本法则通过 OAR 将其包含在产品成本中。理解这两种方法之间的利润差异是高级会计的重要考点。
When production exceeds sales, absorption costing reports a higher profit because some fixed overheads are deferred in closing inventory. Conversely, when sales exceed production, marginal costing profit is higher.
当产量超过销量时，吸收成本法报告的利润更高，因为部分固定间接费用递延至期末存货。相反，当销量超过产量时，边际成本法利润较高。
The difference in profit can be reconciled using the fixed overhead rate per unit and the change in inventory units.
利润差异可通过单位固定间接费用率与存货数量变动进行协调。
Profit Difference = (Closing Inventory − Opening Inventory) × Fixed Overhead Rate per Unit
Under absorption costing, closing inventory includes a fixed overhead element, whereas under marginal costing it does not. This affects both balance sheet values and gross profit.
在吸收成本法下，期末存货包含固定间接费用，而在边际成本法下则不包含。这会影响资产负债表价值和毛利润。
11. Capital Investment Appraisal | 资本投资评估
Businesses use investment appraisal techniques to evaluate long‑term projects. The three main methods are payback period, accounting rate of return (ARR) and net present value (NPV). Each provides a different perspective on risk and return.
企业使用投资评估技术来评价长期项目。三种主要方法是回收期法、会计收益率法 (ARR) 和净现值法 (NPV)。每种方法从不同角度审视风险与回报。
Payback period measures how long it takes for an investment to repay its initial cost from net cash inflows. The shorter the payback, the quicker the risk is reduced.
回收期衡量一项投资通过净现金流入收回初始成本所需的时间。回收期越短，风险降低得越快。
Payback Period (equal cash flows) = Initial Investment ÷ Annual Net Cash InflowPublished by TutorHao | Year 12 Accounting Revision Series | aleveler.com
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