📚 Year 13 AQA Philosophy: Key Terminology Quick Guide | AQA 哲学关键术语速记指南
This guide consolidates the essential terminology for the Year 13 AQA Philosophy specification, covering epistemology, moral philosophy, the metaphysics of God, and the metaphysics of mind. Precise definitions, paired with concise memory hooks, will sharpen your essay writing and help you retrieve the correct technical vocabulary under exam pressure.
本指南汇总 AQA 哲学第二年（Year 13）所有核心术语，涉及认识论、道德哲学、上帝的形而上学和心灵的形而上学。准确的定义配合简短的记忆挂钩，能提升你的论文质量，并让你在考试高压下迅速调取正确的学术词汇。
1. Foundational Concepts in Philosophy | 哲学基础概念
A priori knowledge is justified independently of any experience; think ‘prior’ to looking at the world. For example, ‘All triangles have three sides’ is known a priori.
先验知识 是独立于经验而被辩护的知识；记住“先于”观察世界。例如，“所有三角形都有三边”就是先验知识。
A posteriori knowledge can only be justified by appeal to experience; think ‘post’ observation. ‘Paris is the capital of France’ is a posteriori.
后验知识 只能通过诉诸经验来辩护；记住“后于”观察。“巴黎是法国的首都”是后验知识。
An analytic statement is true solely in virtue of the meaning of its words, e.g. ‘All bachelors are unmarried’. Its truth is contained within the definition.
分析陈述 仅凭词语的意义即为真，如“所有单身汉都是未婚的”。其真值就包含在定义里。
A synthetic statement is true or false depending on how the world is; the predicate adds something not contained in the subject. ‘The cat is on the mat’ is synthetic.
综合陈述 的真假取决于世界的实际状况；谓词给主词增加了定义之外的信息。“猫在垫子上”是综合陈述。
Necessary truths hold in all possible worlds and cannot be false (e.g. 2+2=4). Contingent truths happen to be true but could have been otherwise (e.g. ‘I have brown hair’).
必然真理 在所有可能世界中都成立，不可能为假（如 2+2=4）。偶然真理 碰巧为真，但本来可能为假（如“我有棕色头发”）。
Deductive arguments aim to provide logically conclusive support for their conclusion; if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. Inductive arguments offer probable support; the conclusion is likely but not guaranteed.
演绎论证 旨在为结论提供逻辑上决定性的支持；如果前提真，结论必然真。归纳论证 只提供概然性支持；结论很可能真，但不保证。
Validity is about logical structure: if the premises were true, the conclusion would have to be true. Soundness = valid + all premises actually true. A valid argument can have false premises.
有效性 关涉逻辑结构：如果前提为真，结论必然为真。可靠性 = 有效 + 所有前提实际为真。一个有效论证可以有假前提。
Here is a rapid reference table for these foundational contrasts:
以下是这些基础对比的速查表：
| A priori | 先验 – prior to experience |
| A posteriori | 后验 – post experience |
| Analytic | 分析 – true by definition |
| Synthetic | 综合 – truth depends on world |
| Necessary | 必然 – cannot be false |
| Contingent | 偶然 – could be otherwise |
| Deductive | 演绎 – truth-preserving |
| Inductive | 归纳 – probability |
| Valid | 有效 – if premises true, conclusion true |
| Sound | 可靠 – valid + true premises |
2. Epistemology: Knowledge Definitions | 认识论：知识定义
Propositional knowledge is ‘knowledge that’ something is the case, expressed as ‘S knows that p’. It is the focus of the tripartite analysis.
命题知识 是“知道某事如此这般”的知识，表达为“S 知道 p”。它是三元分析的核心对象。
The Tripartite View (JTB): Knowledge = Justified True Belief. S knows that p if and only if (1) p is true, (2) S believes that p, and (3) S’s belief is justified.
三元定义 (JTB) ： 知识 = 经过辩护的真信念。S 知道 p，当且仅当 (1) p 是真的，(2) S 相信 p，(3) S 的信念得到辩护。
Gettier cases show that JTB is not sufficient: a belief can be justified and true yet still not count as knowledge because the connection between justification and truth is lucky. For example, Smith has strong evidence that Jones will get the job and also believes ‘the man who will get the job has ten coins in his pocket’; it turns out Smith gets the job and also has ten coins. His belief is justified and true, yet it is not knowledge.
盖梯尔反例 表明 JTB 不是知识的充分条件：一个信念可以既是辩护过的又是真的，卻因为辩护与真理之间的联结纯属运气而不算知识。例如，史密斯有强证据认定琼斯会得到工作，且相信“得到工作的人口袋里有十枚硬币”；结果史密斯得到了工作并且兜里恰有十枚硬币。他的信念是辩护过的且为真，却不是知识。
Reliabilism: Knowledge is true belief produced by a reliable cognitive process. A process is reliable if it tends to produce true beliefs. This shifts the focus from internal justification to external reliability.
可靠主义： 知识是由可靠的认知过程产生的真信念。一个过程是可靠的，如果它倾向于产生真信念。这便把焦点从内在辩护转向了外在可靠性。
Virtue epistemology: Knowledge is true belief arising from the exercise of intellectual virtues, such as open-mindedness, thoroughness, and carefulness. Sosa uses the archer analogy: a shot is accurate because it is adroit (skilful) and apt (successful because of skill).
德性认识论： 知识是源于理智德性（如开放心态、缜密、审慎）之运用的真信念。索萨用弓箭手类比：一箭命中，因为它既灵巧（有技巧），又适切（因技巧而成功）。
3. Epistemology: Perception | 认识论：知觉
Direct realism claims we directly perceive mind-independent physical objects and their properties. Perceptual experience gives us immediate access to the external world.
直接实在论 主张我们直接感知到心灵独立的物理对象及其性质。知觉经验让我们直接通达外部世界。
Indirect realism argues we perceive mind-dependent sense-data, which represent physical objects. The immediate objects of perception are mental items; the external world is known indirectly.
间接实在论 主张我们感知的是依赖心灵的感觉材料，它们表征物理对象。知觉的直接对象是心灵项；外部世界被间接认知。
Idealism (Berkeley): Physical objects are collections of ideas; to be is to be perceived (esse est percipi). There is no mind-independent matter; objects exist as ideas in minds, ultimately sustained by God’s perception.
唯心论（贝克莱）： 物理对象无非是观念的集合；存在即是被感知。不存在心灵独立的物质；对象作为观念存在于心灵中，最终由上帝的感知维系。
Primary qualities (e.g. shape, size, motion) are said to exist objectively in objects, while secondary qualities (e.g. colour, taste, sound) are powers to produce sensations in us.
第一性质 （如形状、大小、运动）被认为客观存在于对象中，而 第二性质 （如颜色、味道、声音）是在我们心中产生感觉的能力。
Sense-data: The immediate, private objects of perceptual experience according to indirect realism. They are the appearances we are directly aware of, such as the elliptical appearance of a round coin viewed from an angle.
感觉材料： 根据间接实在论，这是知觉经验中直接的、私人的对象。它们是我們直接觉察到的显相，例如从某个角度观看圆形硬币所呈现的椭圆形外观。
4. Moral Philosophy: Normative Ethics | 道德哲学：规范伦理学
Utilitarianism: The right action is the one that maximises utility (happiness, pleasure, or preference satisfaction). Act utilitarianism judges each act directly; rule utilitarianism assesses whether an act conforms to a rule whose general adoption would maximise utility.
功利主义： 正确的行动就是最大化功利（幸福、快乐或偏好满足）的行动。行为功利主义直接评判每个行动；规则功利主义则看行动是否符合一条广泛采纳後会最大化功利的规则。
Hedonic calculus: Bentham’s method for measuring pleasure and pain along seven dimensions: intensity, duration, certainty, propinquity, fecundity, purity, and extent. It aims to make utilitarian decision-making quantitative.
快乐计算： 边沁用以测量快乐与痛苦的方法，包含七个维度：强度、时长、确定性、邻近性、丰产性、纯度与广度。
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