📚 IGCSE Edexcel Sociology: Vocabulary & Terminology Quick Memorisation Guide | IGCSE Edexcel 社会学：词汇术语速记指南
This revision guide presents essential IGCSE Edexcel Sociology terms organised into clear, memorable sections. Mastering precise sociological vocabulary is the first step towards high-scoring answers. Use active recall and real-world examples to embed each term in your long-term memory. Each section below gives you a definition in English immediately followed by its Chinese equivalent, ensuring you can connect concepts across both languages.
这份复习指南将IGCSE Edexcel社会学核心术语整理成清晰易记的章节。掌握精准的社会学词汇是取得高分的第一步。运用主动回忆和现实案例将每个术语植入长期记忆。以下每一节都提供英文定义并紧接对应的中文，帮助你在两种语言间建立概念关联。
1. Key Sociological Perspectives | 主要社会学视角
Functionalism, developed by Durkheim and Parsons, views society as a system of interdependent parts (institutions) that work together to maintain social order and stability. It emphasises value consensus and social solidarity.
功能主义由涂尔干和帕森斯发展，视社会为由相互依赖的部分（制度）组成的系统，各部分共同运作以维持社会秩序与稳定，强调价值共识与社会团结。
Marxism is a conflict theory based on the ideas of Karl Marx. Society is divided by class conflict between the bourgeoisie (owners of production) and proletariat (workers). The key process is class struggle, leading to revolution.
马克思主义是基于卡尔·马克思思想的冲突理论。社会因资产阶级（生产资料所有者）与无产阶级（工人）之间的阶级冲突而分裂。核心进程是阶级斗争，最终导向革命。
Feminism examines gender inequality and patriarchy. Liberal feminism focuses on legal reform, radical feminism on overthrowing patriarchy, and Marxist feminism links women’s oppression to capitalism.
女性主义研究性别不平等与父权制。自由女性主义侧重法律改革，激进女性主义旨在推翻父权制，马克思主义女性主义将女性压迫与资本主义相联系。
Interactionism (symbolic interactionism) focuses on small-scale, face-to-face interactions. It argues that people act based on the meanings they assign to things, which are created through social interaction. Labelling theory is a key branch.
互动论（符号互动论）聚焦小规模、面对面的互动。它认为人们基于赋予事物的意义行事，这些意义通过社会互动产生。标签理论是其重要分支。
Memory tip: ‘Functionalism sees a FUNctioning body; Marxism sees class MONEY; Feminism focuses on FEMales; Interactionism studies INTERactions.’
记忆要诀：「功能主义看到一个运转的身体；马克思主义看到阶级金钱；女性主义聚焦女性；互动论研究互动。」
2. Culture, Norms and Socialisation | 文化、规范与社会化
Culture refers to the whole way of life of a group, including values, norms, language, beliefs and customs. It is learned, shared and passed down through generations.
文化指一个群体的整体生活方式，包括价值观、规范、语言、信仰与习俗。文化是习得、共享并代代传承的。
Values are broad, general beliefs about what is desirable and good. They underlie norms. For example, valuing honesty leads to the norm of not lying.
价值观是关于什么是可取和美好的宽泛基本信念，是规范的基础。例如，重视诚实会导向不撒谎的规范。
Norms are specific rules that guide behaviour in particular situations. They can be formal (laws) or informal (table manners).
规范是在特定情境中指导行为的具体规则，可以是正式规范（法律）或非正式规范（餐桌礼仪）。
Socialisation is the lifelong process through which individuals learn their culture and develop a sense of self. Primary socialisation occurs in the family; secondary socialisation occurs through agencies such as schools, peer groups and media.
社会化是个体学习文化并形成自我意识的终身过程。初级社会化发生在家庭中；次级社会化通过学校、同伴群体和媒体等机构实现。
Subculture is a group within a larger culture that has its own distinct norms and values, often in opposition to mainstream culture (e.g., punk subculture).
亚文化是较大文化中拥有自身独特规范与价值观的群体，常与主流文化对立（如朋克亚文化）。
Remember: ‘Culture is the whole menu; values are the preferences; norms are the table manners; socialisation is learning how to dine.’
记忆：「文化是全部菜单；价值观是偏好；规范是餐桌礼仪；社会化是学习用餐的过程。」
3. Social Control, Deviance and Anomie | 社会控制、越轨与失范
Social control refers to the mechanisms that regulate individual and group behaviour, aiming to gain conformity and compliance. It can be formal (police, courts) or informal (peer pressure, family disapproval).
社会控制指调控个人与群体行为的机制，旨在获得顺从与服从。可以是正式控制（警察、法庭）或非正式控制（同伴压力、家庭反对）。
Deviance is behaviour that violates the dominant norms of a society. It is relative – what is deviant in one culture may be acceptable in another. Deviance can be positively rewarded (e.g., heroism) or negatively sanctioned.
越轨是违反社会主流规范的行为。越轨具有相对性——一种文化中被视为越轨的，可能在另一文化中被接受。越轨可能受到积极奖励（如英雄行为）或消极制裁。
Anomie, introduced by Durkheim, is a state of normlessness where social norms break down, often during rapid social change. It can lead to increased deviance and suicide.
失范（涂尔干提出）是一种规范缺失的状态，发生于社会规范瓦解时，常见于快速社会变革期。可能导致越轨行为和自杀率上升。
Agents of social control include the family, education, religion, media and the criminal justice system. They enforce norms through sanctions (positive or negative).
社会控制机构包括家庭、教育、宗教、媒体和刑事司法系统。它们通过制裁（积极或消极）来执行规范。
Quick recall: ‘Anomie = A-Norm-ie (absence of norms); Deviance is “different from norms”.’
快速记忆：「Anomie可记为A-Norm-ie（无规范）；Deviance即与规范不同。」
4. Social Stratification and Class | 社会分层与阶级
Social stratification is the hierarchical arrangement of individuals into layers based on factors like wealth, power and prestige. It is institutionalised and persists across generations.
社会分层是根据财富、权力与声望等因素将个体按等级排列的结构，它已制度化并在代际间持续存在。
Class is a form of stratification based on economic factors such as income, occupation and ownership of property. Social classes are relatively open, allowing for social mobility.
阶级是一种基于经济因素（收入、职业与财产所有权）的分层形式。社会阶级相对开放，允许社会流动。
Caste is a closed form of stratification where status is ascribed at birth and fixed for life. Movement between castes is virtually impossible, as seen in traditional India.
种姓是一种封闭的分层形式，地位在出生时先赋并终身固定。种姓间的流动几乎不可能，如传统印度所见。
Life chances refer to the opportunities individuals have to access valued resources such as healthcare, education and housing. Class position heavily influences life chances.
生活机会指个体获得有价值资源（如医疗、教育和住房）的机会。阶级地位深刻影响生活机会。
Glass ceiling is an invisible barrier that prevents women and minorities from rising to top positions, despite qualifications. It illustrates gender stratification.
玻璃天花板是虽具备资格却阻止女性和少数族裔晋升至高层职位的无形障碍，反映出性别分层。
Memory aid: ‘Stratification layers like a rock stratum; CASTE = cast in stone; Class = cash-based.’
记忆助手：「分层像岩层；种姓如石刻固定；阶级以金钱为基础。」
5. Power and Authority | 权力与权威
Power is the ability to make others do what you want, even against their will. It can be exercised through coercion, force or influence.
权力是使他人按你的意愿行事的能力，即便违背其意志。可通过强制、武力或影响力来行使。
Authority is legitimate power – when people accept that the person in charge has the right to give orders. Weber identified three ideal types of authority.
权威是合法化的权力——当人们认可掌权者有权发出指令时。韦伯识别出三种理想型权威。
Traditional authority is based on long-standing customs and beliefs (e.g., monarchy, tribal elders).
传统权威基于长期确立的习俗与信仰（如君主制、部落长老）。
Charismatic authority stems from the personal appeal and extraordinary qualities of a leader (e.g., Nelson Mandela, Martin Luther King). It is often unstable.
魅力型权威源自领袖的个人感召力和非凡品质（如纳尔逊·曼德拉、马丁·路德·金），通常不稳定。
Legal-rational authority is rooted in formal rules and laws; power resides in the office, not the individual (e.g., elected presidents, judges). It is typical of modern bureaucracies.
法理型权威植根于正式规则与法律；权力在职位而非个人（如民选总统、法官）。这是现代官僚制的典型特征。
Hint: ‘Three TLCs: Traditional, Legal-rational, Charismatic. Authority is legitimate; power can be pure force.’
提示：「三种TLC：传统、法理、魅力。权威根基是合法性；权力可能只是强制力。」
6. Family Forms | 家庭形式
Nuclear family consists of two generations: parents and their dependent children living together. It is often presented as the ‘traditional’ family type.
核心家庭由两代人组成：父母及其受抚养子女共同居住。常被表述为「传统」家庭类型。
Extended family includes relatives beyond the nuclear family, such as grandparents, aunts and uncles, living together or in close proximity. It provides wider mutual support.
扩展家庭包含核心家庭之外的亲属，如祖父母、姑姨叔舅，同住或近邻居住，提供更广泛的相互支持。
Lone-parent family is headed by a single parent (usually the mother) raising children alone. Rising divorce rates and changing social attitudes have increased this family form.
单亲家庭由单身家长（通常是母亲）独自抚养子女。离婚率上升和社会态度变化使得这种家庭形式增多。
Reconstituted family (stepfamily) forms when one or both partners bring children from previous relationships into a new household.
重组家庭（继亲家庭）由一个或双方带着前任关系的子女组建新家庭。
Symmetrical family (Young and Willmott) describes a trend towards more equal domestic roles between husbands and wives, with shared decision-making and leisure, though critics argue inequality persists.
对称家庭（杨和威尔莫特）描述夫妻间家庭角色趋于平等，共享决策与休闲，但批评者指出不平等依然存在。
Memory trick: ‘Nuclear is small core; Extended adds branches; Reconstituted blends; Symmetrical balances roles.’
记忆窍门：「核心是小型内核；扩展添加枝干；重组融合；对称平衡角色。」
7. Education: Key Concepts | 教育关键概念
Hidden curriculum refers to the informal lessons taught in schools, such as punctuality, obedience and acceptance of hierarchy, which reproduce the existing social order.
隐性课程指学校中传授的非正式课程，如守时、服从和接受等级制，这些再生产出现有社会秩序。
Labelling occurs when teachers attach a definition or label to a student (e.g., ‘troublemaker’, ‘bright’), which can influence how they are treated and how they see themselves, leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy.
标签效应指教师给学生贴上某种定义或标签（如「捣蛋鬼」「聪明」），这会影响其受到的对待及自我认知，导致自我实现预言。
Self-fulfilling prophecy is when a false definition of a situation evokes behaviour that makes the original false conception come true. A pupil labelled ‘low ability’ may give up trying and underachieve.
自我实现预言指对情境的错误定义引发相应行为，使原本错误的观念成真。被标记为「低能力」的学生可能放弃努力并表现不佳。
Meritocracy is a system where social status and rewards are based solely on individual talent and effort. Functionalists claim education is meritocratic; Marxists argue that class advantage distorts meritocracy.
精英治理是一种社会地位与回报完全基于个人才能和努力的系统。功能主义者声称教育是精英治理；马克思主义者认为阶级优势扭曲了精英治理。
Cultural capital (Bourdieu) encompasses the knowledge, language and attitudes that middle-class children possess, giving them an advantage in the education system.
文化资本（布迪厄）包含中产阶级儿童拥有的知识、语言和态度，使他们在教育体系中更具优势。
Recall: ‘Hidden curriculum = unwritten rules; Labelling can become a life sentence; Meritocracy = talent-based ladder.’
记忆：「隐性课程=不成文的规则；标签可能成为终身判决；精英治理=基于才华的阶梯。」
8. Crime and Social Order | 犯罪与社会秩序
White-collar crime (Sutherland) refers to non-violent crimes committed by individuals of high social status in the course of their occupation, e.g., fraud, embezzlement. It is often underreported and less severely punished.
白领犯罪（萨瑟兰）指高社会地位者在职业过程中实施的非暴力犯罪，如欺诈、挪用公款，常被少报且惩罚较轻。
Deviancy amplification describes how media reporting and public concern can magnify the scale of deviant behaviour, creating a moral panic. Police crackdowns may increase arrests, reinforcing the perception of a crime wave.
越轨放大描述媒体报道和公众关注如何增大越轨行为的规模，形成道德恐慌。警方严厉打击可能导致逮捕增加，强化犯罪浪潮的印象。
Moral panic (Cohen) occurs when a condition, group or person is defined as a threat to societal values, often exaggerated by the media. Folk devils are created (e.g., ‘hoodies’, ‘mods and rockers’).
道德恐慌（科恩）指某种状况、群体或个人被界定为对社会价值的威胁，常被媒体夸大。民怨替身（如「连帽衫青年」「摩登派和摇滚派」）因此被塑造。
Anomie and strain theory (Merton) argues that strain between societal goals (e.g., wealth) and legitimate means to achieve them leads to deviance. Conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism and rebellion are adaptations.
失范与压力理论（默顿）认为社会目标（如财富）与合法实现手段之间的压力导致越轨。五种适应模式：遵从、创新、仪式主义、退却主义与反叛。
Community sentencing and restorative justice are alternatives to prison, focusing on repairing harm and reintegrating offenders.
社区刑罚与恢复性司法是监禁的替代方案，侧重修复伤害与重新整合罪犯。
Memory: ‘White-collar: suits not street; Deviancy amplification makes mountains out of molehills; Moral panics need folk devils.’
记忆：「白领犯罪：西装而非街头；越轨放大是把小题大做；道德恐慌需要民怨替身。」
9. Mass Media and Representation | 大众媒体与表征
Hypodermic syringe model suggests that media texts inject messages directly into a passive audience, who respond in a uniform way. It is often used to explain media effects like violent behaviour copying.
皮下注射器模型认为媒介文本将信息直接注入被动的受众，受众以统一方式反应。常被用来解释模仿暴力等媒体效果。
Uses and gratifications model argues that audiences actively use media to meet needs: diversion, personal relationships, personal identity and surveillance (information).
使用与满足模型认为受众主动使用媒体以满足需求：娱乐消遣、人际关系、个人认同和监视（信息获取）。
Agenda-setting refers to the media’s ability to influence which issues people think are important by the amount and prominence of coverage. The media tells us what to think about, not what to think.
议程设置指媒体通过报道量和显著程度影响公众对议题重要性的认知。媒体告诉我们想什么，而非怎么想。
Gatekeeping is the process of selecting and filtering news. Editors and journalists decide which stories reach the public, shaping the information landscape.
把关是选择与过滤新闻的过程。编辑和记者决定哪些故事抵达公众，塑造信息场域。
Representation in media involves how social groups are portrayed. Stereotypical representations can reinforce prejudice (e.g., minorities as criminals, women as homemakers).
媒体表征涉及社会群体如何被描绘。刻板印象的再现可能强化偏见（如少数族裔作为罪犯，女性作为持家者）。
Tip: ‘Hypodermic = injecting; Uses & gratifications = user picks; Agenda-setting = setting the menu of discussion.’
要诀：「皮下注射=注入；使用与满足=用户挑选；议程设置=设定讨论菜单。」
10. Research Methods and Key Concepts | 研究方法与关键概念
Validity refers to the extent to which research findings provide a true picture of social reality. High validity means the research measures what it claims to measure, often achieved through qualitative methods like in-depth interviews.
效度指研究发现反映社会现实真实图景的程度。高效度意味着研究测量到了所声称要测量的内容，通常通过深度访谈等质性方法实现。
Reliability is about consistency and repeatability. A reliable method produces the same results if repeated under the same conditions, a common strength of quantitative methods such as structured questionnaires.
信度关乎一致性与可重复性。一个可靠的方法在相同条件下重复使用会产生相同结果，这常是结构化问卷等量化方法的优势。
Primary data is information collected first-hand by the researcher for the specific purpose of the study (e.g., direct observations, interviews). It allows control but is time-consuming.
一手数据是研究者为特定研究目的亲自收集的信息（如直接观察、访谈）。它便于控制但耗时。
Secondary data is information that already exists, collected by someone else for another purpose (e.g., official statistics, historical documents). It saves time but may not perfectly fit the research question.
二手数据是已存在、由他人为其他目的收集的信息（如官方统计、历史文献）。节省时间但可能与研究问题不完全匹配。
Sampling techniques include random sampling (everyone has equal chance), stratified sampling (proportional representation of subgroups) and snowball sampling (referrals). The sample should represent the target population for generalisability.
抽样技术包括随机抽样（所有人机会均等）、分层抽样（按比例代表亚群体）和滚雪球抽样（推荐式）。样本应代表目标人群以实现可推广性。
Quick recall: ‘Validity = Truth; Reliability = Repeat; Primary = fresh; Secondary = recycled; Sampling picks the crowd.’
快速记忆：「效度求真相；信度求重复；一手是新鲜，二手是再循环；抽样是选人群。」
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