📚 Vocabulary & Terminology Quick-Memorization Guide for Cambridge Year 12 Philosophy | 剑桥 Year 12 哲学词汇术语速记指南
Mastering Cambridge Year 12 Philosophy begins with a firm grip on its specialised vocabulary. This guide pairs core terms with precise definitions and memory-friendly explanations, translating each concept from English into Chinese to support bilingual learners. Use it alongside your reading of Plato, Descartes, Hume, Kant, and contemporary thinkers to sharpen essays and exam answers.
掌握剑桥 Year 12 哲学的第一步是牢固掌握其专业词汇。本指南将核心术语与精准定义和易于记忆的解释配对，并将每个概念从英文翻译为中文，以支持双语学习者。在阅读柏拉图、笛卡尔、休谟、康德和当代思想家时使用它，让你的论文和考试答案更加犀利。
1. Foundational Epistemology Terms | 认识论基础术语
A priori knowledge is justified independently of sense experience. Typical examples are mathematical truths (2 + 2 = 4) and logical principles (the law of non-contradiction). Because such truths can be grasped by reason alone, they are the hallmark of rationalist philosophy.
先验知识是独立于感官经验而得到辩护的知识。典型的例子是数学真理（2 + 2 = 4）和逻辑原则（不矛盾律）。由于此类真理仅凭理性即可把握，它们成为理性主义哲学的标识。
A posteriori knowledge depends entirely on experience. Scientific observations such as ‘water boils at 100°C at sea level’ or everyday perceptual claims like ‘the cat is on the mat’ are a posteriori; we need our senses to verify them.
后验知识完全依赖于经验。科学观察如“水在海平面上 100°C 沸腾”，或日常感知断言如“猫在垫子上”都是后验的；我们需要感官来验证它们。
An analytic proposition is one whose predicate concept is contained in the subject concept; its truth relies solely on the meanings of words. ‘All bachelors are unmarried’ is analytic.
分析命题是其谓词概念包含在主词概念中的命题；它的真值完全依赖于词义。“所有单身汉都是未婚的”是分析命题。
A synthetic proposition adds something new to the subject concept, and its truth depends on the way the world is. ‘The cat is on the mat’ is synthetic because the idea of a cat does not contain the idea of being on a mat.
综合命题为主词概念增添了新内容，其真值取决于世界所是的方式。“猫在垫子上”是综合命题，因为猫的概念并不包含在垫子上的概念。
A necessary truth is a proposition that cannot be false in any possible world. Mathematical identities and definitions (e.g., ‘2+2=4’, ‘a triangle has three sides’) are paradigmatic necessary truths.
必然真理是在所有可能世界中都不为假的命题。数学等式和定义（如“2+2=4”“三角形有三条边”）是典型的必然真理。
A contingent truth holds in the actual world but could have been otherwise. ‘Cambridge is in England’ is true, but it is not a necessary fact; history could have taken a different path.
偶然真理在现实世界中为真，但可能以另外的样子出现。“剑桥在英格兰”是真的，但并非必然事实；历史本可能走上不同的路径。
Empiricism asserts that the sole source of genuine knowledge is sense experience. The mind begins as a tabula rasa (blank slate). Locke, Berkeley, and Hume are key empiricists.
经验主义主张唯一可靠的知识来源是感官经验。心灵最初是一块 tabula rasa（白板）。洛克、贝克莱和休谟是主要的经验主义者。
Rationalism holds that reason alone, independent of the senses, can provide substantive knowledge about the world. Descartes, Spinoza, and Leibniz exemplify this view.
理性主义认为理性本身，独立于感官，能够提供关于世界的实质性知识。笛卡尔、斯宾诺莎和莱布尼茨是这一观点的代表。
2. Logic & Argument | 逻辑与论证
An argument is a set of statements where some (premises) are intended to support another (the conclusion). A strong argument is one where, if the premises are true, the conclusion is likely or necessarily true.
论证是一组陈述，其中一些（前提）旨在支持另一个（结论）。一个好的论证是指，如果前提为真，结论很可能或必然为真。
In a deductive argument, the conclusion is claimed to follow necessarily from the premises. If the premises are true, the conclusion cannot be false. Example: All men are mortal; Socrates is a man; ∴ Socrates is mortal.
在演绎论证中，结论被声称为必然从前提中得出。如果前提为真，结论不可能为假。例如：所有人都会死；苏格拉底是人；∴ 苏格拉底会死。
Validity is a property of deductive arguments where, if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. Validity concerns the logical structure, not the actual truth of the premises. Example: All cats are dogs; all dogs are fish; therefore all cats are fish — valid but unsound.
有效性是演绎论证的一种属性，即如果前提为真，结论必然为真。有效性关注逻辑结构，而非前提的实际真值。例如：所有的猫都是狗；所有的狗都是鱼；因此所有的猫都是鱼 — 有效但不健全。
Soundness requires a deductive argument to be valid and have all true premises. A sound argument guarantees a true conclusion; it is the gold standard in philosophical reasoning.
健全性要求演绎论证既有效，且所有前提都为真。一个健全的论证保证结论为真；它是哲学推理中的黄金标准。
An inductive argument attempts to show that its conclusion is probable given the premises. Even if the premises are true, the conclusion could still be false. All observed swans are white → therefore all swans are white (inductive, and in this case false).
归纳论证试图表明，在给定前提下，其结论是或然的。即便前提为真，结论仍可能为假。观察到的所有天鹅都是白的 → 因此所有天鹅都是白的（归纳论证，且在此例中为假）。
A cogent inductive argument is strong (premises make the conclusion highly probable) and has true premises. Cogent arguments are the cornerstone of scientific reasoning and everyday decision-making.
一个有说服力的归纳论证是强论证（前提使结论高度可能）且拥有真前提。有说服力的论证是科学推理和日常决策的基石。
3. Metaphysical Concepts | 形而上学概念
Ontology is the study of being, existence, and the categories of things that exist. When we ask ‘What kinds of things are there?’ — material objects, numbers, minds, properties — we are doing ontology.
本体论是对存在、实有以及存在物范畴的研究。当我们问“存在哪些种类的东西？”——物质对象、数、心灵、属性——我们就是在做本体论。
Realism about a domain (e.g., universals, abstract objects, the external world) asserts that entities of that kind exist mind-independently. For instance, Platonic realism holds that Forms exist independently of particular things and our minds.
关于某个领域的实在论（例如共相、抽象对象、外部世界）断言这类实体是独立于心灵而存在的。例如，柏拉图式实在论主张理型（Form）独立于具体事物和我们的心灵而存在。
Nominalism denies the existence of abstract entities or universals, claiming that only particular things exist. Talk of ‘redness’ is just a convenient way of grouping red particulars; there is no universal Redness.
唯名论否认抽象实体或共相的存在，声称只有特殊事物存在。谈论“红色”只是对红色特殊物进行归类的一种方便方式；并不存在共相“红性”本身。
Essentialism is the view that things have necessary properties — an essence — that make them what they are. For Aristotle, a human’s essence is rationality. Without it, a being would not be human.
本质主义认为事物具有使其成为自身所是的必然属性——即本质。对亚里士多德而言，人的本质是理性。没有理性，一个存在者便不是人。
Dualism (in metaphysics of mind) claims that mental and physical substances are fundamentally distinct. Descartes’ substance dualism separates res cogitans (thinking substance) from res extensa (extended substance).
二元论（在心灵形而上学中）主张心灵实体和物质实体在根本上是不同的。笛卡尔的实体二元论将 res cogitans（思维实体）与 res extensa（广延实体）区分开来。
Materialism (or physicalism) holds that everything that exists is ultimately physical. Mental states like pain or thinking are identical with or supervene on brain states.
唯物主义（或物理主义）认为存在的一切最终都是物理的。疼痛或思考等心理状态与大脑状态同一，或随附于其上。
4. Key Terms in Ethics | 伦理学关键词
Deontology is an ethical theory centred on duty and rules. An act is right if it conforms to a moral rule or principle, irrespective of consequences. Kant’s Categorical Imperative — ‘Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law’ — is a classic deontological prescription.
道义论是以义务和规则为中心的伦理理论。一个行为如果符合道德规则或原则，不论后果如何，它就是正确的。康德的定言命令——“只依照你能够同时意愿它成为普遍法则的准则去行动”——是经典的道义论规条。
Consequentialism judges the rightness of an act solely by its outcomes. The most famous version, utilitarianism, defines the right act as the one that maximises overall happiness or pleasure (the greatest good for the greatest number).
后果论仅凭行为的结果来判断其正确性。最著名的版本，功利主义，将正确行为定义为能使总体幸福或快乐最大化的行为（最大多数人的最大善）。
Virtue ethics focuses on the character of the moral agent rather than on rules or consequences. An act is right if it is what a virtuous person would do in the circumstances. Aristotle’s idea of the mean — courage lies between cowardice and rashness — illustrates this.
德性伦理关注道德行为者的品格，而非规则或后果。一个行为是正确的，如果它是在特定情境下有德之人会做的。亚里士多德的中道思想——勇敢位于怯懦与鲁莽之间——说明了这一点。
Moral relativism states that moral truths are relative to cultures, individuals, or historical periods; there are no universal moral truths. Descriptive relativism observes moral diversity; meta-ethical relativism claims that moral truths themselves are relative.
道德相对主义认为道德真理是相对于文化、个体或历史时期而言的；不存在普遍的道德真理。描述性相对主义观察道德多样性；元伦理相对主义则声称道德真理本身是相对的。
Moral absolutism maintains that certain actions are absolutely right or wrong, independent of context or consequences. For example, lying is always wrong, regardless of the good it might produce.
道德绝对主义坚持认为某些行为绝对正确或错误，独立于情境或后果。例如，说谎总是错的，无论它可能带来多大的善。
5. Philosophy of Mind | 心灵哲学
Qualia are the subjective, qualitative aspects of conscious experience — the ‘what it is like’ to see red, taste chocolate, or feel pain. They pose a famous challenge to physicalism: can a complete physical description capture the redness of red?
感受质是意识经验中主观的、质的方面——看见红色、品尝巧克力或感到疼痛时“那是什么样子”。这对物理主义提出了著名的挑战：一个完整的物理描述能否捕捉红色的“红色之感”？
Intentionality is the ‘aboutness’ of mental states. Beliefs, desires, and thoughts are always about something: a belief is about a state of affairs, a desire is about an object. Brentano argued intentionality is the mark of the mental.
意向性是心理状态的“关于性”。信念、欲望和思想总是关于某物的：一个信念关于某个事态，一个欲望关于某个对象。布伦塔诺认为意向性是心理的标志。
Behaviourism (in philosophy of mind) reduces mental states to dispositions to behave in certain ways. Pain is nothing over and above the tendency to wince, cry out, or avoid the painful stimulus.
行为主义（心灵哲学中）将心理状态还原为以特定方式行为的倾向。疼痛无非就是退缩、喊叫或回避疼痛刺激的倾向。
Functionalism defines mental states in terms of their causal roles: the relations between sensory inputs, other mental states, and behavioural outputs. A mental state like ‘belief that it is raining’ is defined by what causes it (seeing rain) and what it causes (taking an umbrella).
功能主义根据因果角色来定义心理状态：即感官输入、其他心理状态和行为输出之间的关系。一个心理状态，如“相信正在下雨”，是由其原因（看到下雨）和它所导致的结果（带伞）来定义的。
Identity theory states that mental states are strictly identical to brain states. The sensation of pain just is the firing of C-fibres in the brain. It is a type of physicalism that avoids dualism’s interaction problem.
同一论认为心理状态与大脑状态严格同一。疼痛的感觉就是大脑中 C 纤维的发放。它是一种物理主义，避免了二元论的交互作用问题。
6. Theories of Truth | 真理理论
The correspondence theory of truth holds that a proposition is true if and only if it corresponds to a fact. ‘Snow is white’ is true because snow really is white. Truth is a relation between language/thought and the world.
真理符合论认为一个命题为真当且仅当它与事实相符合。“雪是白的”为真，因为雪确实是白的。真理是语言/思想与世界之间的关系。
The coherence theory states that a proposition is true if it is part of a coherent system of beliefs. A belief is true when it hangs together consistently with all other accepted beliefs, like a well-fitted puzzle piece.
真理融贯论认为，一个命题如果是一个融贯信念系统的一部分，那它就是真的。当一个信念与其他所有被接受的信念和谐一致地结合在一起，就像一块严丝合缝的拼图，那它就是真的。
The pragmatic theory of truth asserts that a belief is true if it is useful or works in practice. What is true is what leads to successful predictions and practical outcomes. For William James, truth happens to an idea.
实用主义真理观断言，如果一个信念有用或在实践中有效，那它就是真的。真理就是能导向成功预测和实际成果的东西。对威廉·詹姆斯而言，真理是观念所“发生”之事。
7. Knowledge: JTB and Gettier Problems | 知识：JTB 与盖梯尔问题
The tripartite definition of knowledge — justified true belief (JTB) — states that a person S knows that p if and only if: (i) p is true; (ii) S believes that p; and (iii) S is justified in believing that p. This was widely accepted until Gettier.
知识的三元定义——得到辩护的真信念（JTB）——声称一个人 S 知道命题 p 当且仅当：(i) p 为真；(ii) S 相信 p；且 (iii) S 相信 p 是有辩护的。在盖梯尔之前，这一定义被广泛接受。
A Gettier case is a counterexample where justified true belief does not suffice for knowledge because the belief is true only by luck. For example, you see a broken clock showing 3:00 and form the belief ‘It is 3:00’. Unbeknownst to you, the clock is broken, but coincidentally it really is 3:00. Your belief is justified and true, but it seems you do not know the time.
盖梯尔案例是一个反例，其中得到辩护的真信念并不足以构成知识，因为信念的成真只是出于运气。例如，你看见一个坏掉的钟显示 3:00，并形成信念“现在是 3:00”。你不知道钟坏了，但碰巧此刻真的是 3:00。你的信念是有辩护且为真的，但你似乎并不知道时间。
Responses to Gettier often add a fourth condition to JTB, such as the ‘no false lemmas’ condition (the belief must not be inferred from any falsehood), or require a causal connection between the belief and the fact.
回应盖梯尔通常为 JTB 添加第四个条件，例如“无错误引理”条件（信念不得从任何假信念中推导出来），或要求信念与事实之间存在因果联系。
8. Scepticism and Responses | 怀疑论与回应
Global scepticism is the radical view that we cannot know anything at all. The sceptic uses scenarios like the Cartesian evil demon or the brain in a vat to challenge our ordinary knowledge claims, arguing that we cannot rule out the possibility that we are being deceived.
全面怀疑论是一种极端观点，认为我们根本不可能知道任何事情。怀疑论者使用笛卡尔的恶魔或缸中之脑等情景挑战我们日常的知识宣称，认为我们无法排除被欺骗的可能性。
Local scepticism targets a specific domain of knowledge, such as knowledge of other minds, the external world, or the future. It is more modest and harder to dismiss outright.
局部怀疑论针对某个特定领域的知识，例如关于他心的知识、外部世界的知识或关于未来的知识。它更为温和，也更难被完全驳倒。
Foundationalism responds to scepticism by positing basic beliefs — indubitable or self-justifying truths — upon which all other knowledge is built. Descartes’ cogito (‘I think, therefore I am’) is his foundational certainty.
基础主义通过设定基本信念——无可置疑或自我辩护的真理——来回应怀疑论，所有其他知识都建立在这些基本信念之上。笛卡尔的“我思故我在”就是他的基础性确定性。
Coherentism rejects foundationalism and argues that beliefs are justified not by a linear chain going back to a foundation, but by their mutual support within a coherent web. Knowledge is like a raft that stays afloat because its planks reinforce each other, not because it rests on a solid base.
融贯论拒绝基础主义，主张信念得到辩护的方式并非通过回溯到基础的线性链条，而是通过在融贯的网络中相互支持。知识就像一只筏子，它漂浮是因为木板彼此加固，而非因为它安放在坚固的基座上。
9. Philosophy of Perception | 感知哲学
Direct realism (naive realism) claims that we directly perceive mind-independent physical objects and their properties. When I look at a tree, I am immediately aware of the tree itself, not some mental intermediary.
直接实在论（朴素实在论）主张我们直接感知独立于心灵的物质对象及其属性。当我看一棵树时，我直接意识到树本身，而非某种心理中介。
Indirect realism (representative realism) claims that we perceive physical objects indirectly, by means of sense data — private, mind-dependent mental representations. John Locke’s distinction between primary qualities (e.g., shape, size) and secondary qualities (e.g., colour, taste) is central to this view.
间接实在论（表象实在论）主张我们通过感觉材料——私人的、依赖心灵的心理表征——间接感知物理对象。约翰·洛克对第一性质（如形状、大小）和第二性质（如颜色、味道）的区分是该观点的核心。
The argument from illusion is used by indirect realists against direct realism: in cases of illusion or hallucination, we seem to perceive something that does not exist in the external world (e.g., a bent-looking stick in water). What we are directly aware of must be a mental item — sense data.
错觉论证被间接实在论者用来反对直接实在论：在错觉或幻觉的情况下，我们似乎感知到某种在外部世界中并不存在的东西（例如，水里看起来弯曲的棍子）。我们直接意识到的必定是心理事项——感觉材料。
Idealism (as found in Berkeley) goes further and claims that physical objects are nothing but collections of ideas; to be is to be perceived (esse est percipi). There is no mind-independent material substrate at all.
观念论（如在贝克莱那里）走得更远，主张物理对象无非是观念的集合；存在就是被感知（esse est percipi）。根本就不存在独立于心灵的物质基质。
10. Free Will and Determinism | 自由意志与决定论
Hard determinism holds that all events, including human actions, are causally necessitated by prior states of the world and the laws of nature. If determinism is true, then free will is impossible — we are never genuinely responsible for our actions.
强硬决定论认为所有事件，包括人类行为，都是由世界的先前状态和自然法则必然决定的。如果决定论为真，那么自由意志就是不可能的——我们从未真正为自己的行为负责。
Libertarianism (in free will debates) denies determinism and asserts that humans have a special kind of free will that allows for genuine alternative possibilities. Some libertarians appeal to agent causation: the agent themselves is an uncaused cause of their actions.
自由意志论（在自由意志争论中）否认决定论，并断言人类拥有一种特殊的自由意志，能够提供真正的其他可能性。一些自由意志论者诉诸行动者因果：行动者本人是其行为的非受因之因。
Compatibilism (soft determinism) argues that free will and determinism are compatible. An act is free as long as it flows from the agent’s own desires and character without external coercion, even if those desires themselves are determined. Hume and modern philosophers like Frankfurt defend this view.
相容论（温和决定论）主张自由意志与决定论是相容的。一个行为是自由的，只要它源自行动者自身的欲望和品格，且没有外在强制，即使这些欲望本身是被决定的。休谟和像法兰克福这样的现代哲学家捍卫这一观点。
11. Memory Techniques and Recap | 记忆技巧与回顾
Link English terms to their Latin roots: a priori = ‘from the earlier’; a posteriori = ‘from the later’. Breaking words into components aids long-term recall.
将英语术语与其拉丁词根联系：a priori = “从在先者”；a posteriori = “从在后者”。把词汇拆成部分有助于长期记忆。
Pair contrasting concepts to build a mental map: a priori / a posteriori, analytic / synthetic, necessary / contingent, deontology / consequentialism, direct realism / indirect realism, compatibilism / incompatibilism. Oppositions create strong associative hooks.
配对对立概念以构建心理地图：先验 / 后验，分析 / 综合，必然 / 偶然，道义论 / 后果论，直接实在论 / 间接实在论，相容论 / 不相容论。对立面形成强烈的关联钩子。
Use abbreviated logic symbols to master argument evaluation. Deduction: Premises → Conclusion (necessarily). Validity: If premises true, then conclusion true. Soundness: Valid + true premises = necessarily true conclusion.
使用简化的逻辑符号掌握论证评估。演绎： 前提 → 结论（必然地）。有效性： 如果前提真，则结论真。健全性： 有效 + 真前提 = 必然为真的结论。
For Gettier cases and JTB, memorise the acronym: Justified True Belief — and remember the clock example to recall that luck undermines knowledge.
对于盖梯尔案例和 JTB，记住首字母缩略词：Justified True Belief —— 并记住时钟的例子，以回想起运气会破坏知识。
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