📚 WJEC Year 13 Politics: Key Terms Quick Revision Guide | WJEC Year 13 政治：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering the precise vocabulary of politics is essential for high marks in your WJEC Year 13 exam. This guide breaks down the most important terms from the US Government and Politics and Global Politics units into clear, bilingual explanations, helping you grasp both meaning and context quickly. Each term is presented with its English definition followed immediately by the Chinese equivalent, ensuring you build a confident command of the subject in both languages.
掌握政治学的精确术语是在 WJEC Year 13 考试中取得高分的关键。本指南将美国政府与政治以及全球政治单元中最关键的词汇拆解为清晰的双语解释，帮助你快速把握含义与语境。每个术语均先给出英文定义，再紧跟中文对应解释，确保你能够用两种语言自信地驾驭这门学科。
1. US Constitution and Federalism | 美国宪法与联邦制
Constitution: A set of fundamental principles and established precedents according to which a state is governed, specifically the United States Constitution ratified in 1788, which outlines the structure of federal government, separation of powers, and the rights of citizens.
宪法： 一组国家治理所依据的根本性原则和既定先例，尤指1788年批准生效的美国宪法，它规定了联邦政府的结构、权力分立以及公民的权利。
Federalism: A system of government in which power is divided and shared between a central (federal) government and individual state governments, each with their own areas of sovereign authority as entrenched by the Constitution.
联邦制： 一种政府体制，其中权力在中央政府（联邦政府）和各州政府之间进行划分与共享，各自拥有一片由宪法确立的主权管辖领域。
Separation of Powers: A doctrine originating from Montesquieu that divides government responsibilities into three distinct branches—legislative, executive, and judicial—to prevent any one branch from gaining too much power.
权力分立： 源自孟德斯鸠的一种学说，将政府责任划分为三个独立的部门——立法部门、行政部门和司法部门，以防止任何一个部门权力过度集中。
Checks and Balances: The system that allows each branch of government to amend or veto acts of another branch, such as the presidential veto or judicial review, ensuring no single branch dominates.
制衡制度： 允许政府各部门修改或否决另一部门行为的体系，例如总统否决权或司法审查，从而确保没有任何一个部门可以独大。
Enumerated Powers: Specific powers explicitly granted to the federal government by the US Constitution, such as the power to coin money, declare war, and regulate interstate commerce (Article I, Section 8).
列举权力： 美国宪法明确授予联邦政府的特定权力，例如铸币权、宣战权和调控州际商业的权力（第一条第八款）。
Implied Powers: Powers not explicitly stated in the Constitution but derived from the Necessary and Proper Clause (Elastic Clause), allowing Congress to pass laws needed to carry out its enumerated powers.
默示权力： 宪法中未明确阐述但源于必要和适当条款（弹性条款）的权力，允许国会通过落实其列举权力所需的法律。
2. US Congress | 美国国会
Bicameralism: The practice of having two separate chambers within a legislature, in the US context the House of Representatives and the Senate, each with distinct powers, term lengths, and modes of election.
两院制： 立法机构中设置两个独立议院的实践，在美国指众议院和参议院，两院在权力、任期和选举方式上各有不同。
Filibuster: A tactic used in the Senate to delay or block a vote on a bill by extending debate indefinitely, which can only be ended by a cloture motion requiring a three-fifths majority (60 votes).
冗长辩论： 参议院中通过无限期延长辩论来拖延或阻止对法案进行表决的策略，只有获得五分之三多数（60票）的终结辩论动议才能终止。
Standing Committee: A permanent legislative committee in Congress that considers bills, conducts hearings, and oversees executive agencies within a particular policy area, such as the House Ways and Means Committee.
常设委员会： 国会中的常设立法委员会，负责审议法案、举行听证会并在特定政策领域监督行政机构，例如众议院筹款委员会。
Logrolling: The practice of exchanging political favours, especially among legislators, by agreeing to support each other’s proposed bills or earmarks to secure mutual benefits.
互投赞成票： 立法者之间交换政治利益的做法，即通过同意支持对方提出的法案或专项拨款来获取互利。
Oversight: The congressional review, monitoring, and supervision of the executive branch and its agencies, often exercised through committee hearings and investigations to ensure laws are faithfully executed.
监督权： 国会对行政部门及其机构进行的审查、监控和监督，通常通过委员会听证和调查来行使，以确保法律得到忠实执行。
3. The US Presidency | 美国总统
Executive Order: A directive issued by the president that manages operations of the federal government and has the force of law without requiring congressional approval, though it can be overturned by the courts or a subsequent president.
行政命令： 总统发布的具有法律效力而无需国会批准的指令，用于管理联邦政府的运作，但可被法院或继任总统推翻。
Veto Power: The constitutional right of the president to reject a bill passed by Congress, which can only be overridden by a two-thirds majority in both houses.
否决权： 宪法赋予总统拒绝国会通过的法案的权力，国会只有在两院各获得三分之二多数票时才能推翻该否决。
Pocket Veto: An indirect veto that occurs when the president does not sign a bill within ten days and Congress adjourns during that period, causing the bill to fail without a formal veto message.
搁置否决： 一种间接否决，当总统在十天内未签署法案且国会在该期间休会时发生，导致法案未经正式否决即告失效。
Imperilled Presidency: A theory arguing that the president’s powers are often too limited to meet public expectations, constrained by checks from Congress, the courts, and the bureaucracy.
总统困境论： 一种认为总统权力往往过于有限而难以满足公众期望的理论，总统受到国会、法院和官僚体系的多重制衡。
Signing Statement: A written pronouncement issued by the president upon signing a bill into law, often outlining how the executive branch intends to interpret or enforce the legislation.
签署声明： 总统在签署法案使其成为法律时发布的书面声明，通常会说明行政部门打算如何解读或执行该立法。
4. US Supreme Court and Judiciary | 美国最高法院与司法系统
Judicial Review: The power of the Supreme Court to declare laws and executive actions unconstitutional, established by the landmark case Marbury v. Madison (1803).
司法审查： 最高法院宣布法律和行政行为违宪的权力，由具有里程碑意义的马伯里诉麦迪逊案（1803年）确立。
Stare Decisis: The legal principle of determining points in litigation according to precedent, meaning courts should follow earlier decisions when similar cases arise to ensure consistency and stability.
遵循先例： 依据判例裁决诉讼要点的法律原则，即法院在类似案件出现时应当遵循先前的判决，以确保一致性和稳定性。
Judicial Activism: An approach where judges are more willing to strike down legislation and executive actions, broadly interpret constitutional provisions, and pursue policy goals through their rulings.
司法能动主义： 法官更倾向于否决立法和行政行为、宽泛解释宪法条款并通过裁决追求政策目标的一种司法取向。
Judicial Restraint: The philosophy that judges should defer to the elected branches of government, avoid striking down laws unless clearly unconstitutional, and respect precedent and original intent.
司法克制主义： 强调法官应当尊重民选机关、除非明显违宪否则不推翻法律、并尊重先例和原意的哲学思想。
Amicus Curiae Brief: A ‘friend of the court’ brief, filed by a person or group not directly involved in the case, offering additional information and arguments to assist the Supreme Court in its decision-making.
法庭之友书状： 非案件直接当事人的个人或团体提交的“法庭之友”意见书，提供额外的信息和论点以协助最高法院作出裁决。
5. US Elections and Political Parties | 美国选举与政党
Electoral College: The body of electors from each state, equal to the state’s total representation in Congress, which formally elects the president; a candidate needs a majority of 270 out of 538 electoral votes to win.
选举人团： 由各州选出的选举人组成的团体，其数量等于该州在国会的全部议席数，负责正式选举总统；候选人需要获得538张选举人票中的多数270票才能获胜。
Primary Election: An election held by a political party to select its candidate for the general election, which can be open (allowing all voters) or closed (limited to registered party members).
初选： 政党为遴选参加大选的候选人而举行的选举，可分为开放式初选（所有选民均可参与）和封闭式初选（仅限注册党员参与）。
Super PAC: A type of political action committee that may raise and spend unlimited sums of money to advocate for or against political candidates, but is prohibited from directly coordinating with candidates’ campaigns.
超级政治行动委员会： 一种政治行动委员会，可无限额地筹集和支出资金来支持或反对政治候选人，但被禁止与候选人竞选团队直接协调。
Partisan Polarisation: The growing ideological distance and intense animosity between the Democratic and Republican parties and their supporters, leading to legislative gridlock and a decline in cross-party cooperation.
政党极化： 民主党和共和党及其支持者之间日益扩大的意识形态差距和强烈敌意，导致立法僵局和跨党派合作的减少。
Incumbency Advantage: The electoral edge enjoyed by current office-holders, who often benefit from greater name recognition, fundraising capabilities, and constituency service records.
在任者优势： 现任公职人员所享有的选举优势，他们往往受益于较高的知名度、更强的筹款能力和往绩服务记录。
6. Sovereignty and Global Governance | 主权与全球治理
Sovereignty: The ultimate and legitimate authority of a state to govern itself without external interference, encompassing both internal supremacy over its territory and external recognition by other states.
主权： 国家不受外部干涉进行自我治理的最高合法权力，包括对内领土最高权和对外得到其他国家承认的国际人格。
Global Governance: The complex web of formal and informal institutions, norms, and agreements that coordinate collective action and manage global issues in the absence of a world government.
全球治理： 在没有世界政府的情况下，协调集体行动和管理全球问题的正式与非正式制度、规范和协定所构成的复杂网络。
Westphalian System: The international order based on the principles of state sovereignty and non-interference, often traced back to the 1648 Peace of Westphalia, which remains the foundation of modern international law.
威斯特伐利亚体系： 基于国家主权与不干涉内政原则的国际秩序，常追溯至1648年《威斯特伐利亚和约》，至今仍是现代国际法的基础。
Supranational Institution: An international organisation in which member states voluntarily cede some sovereign powers for collective decision-making, such as the European Union with its law-making competences.
超国家机构： 成员国自愿让渡部分主权权力以进行集体决策的国际组织，例如拥有立法权限的欧盟。
Unipolarity: An international system in which one state holds preponderant economic, military, and cultural influence, such as the United States after the Cold War.
单极： 指一个国家在经济、军事和文化影响力方面占据绝对优势的国际体系，例如冷战后的美国。
7. Human Rights and Humanitarian Intervention | 人权与人道主义干预
Human Rights: The basic rights and freedoms that all people are inherently entitled to, irrespective of nationality, sex, ethnicity, or religion, commonly codified in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948).
人权： 所有人与生俱来的基本权利和自由，不分国籍、性别、种族或宗教，通常编纂于《世界人权宣言》（1948年）。
Humanitarian Intervention: Military action taken by a state or coalition of states to prevent or halt large-scale human rights abuses inside another state, often justified by the moral imperative to protect civilians.
人道主义干预： 一国或多国联盟为预防或制止另一国内部大规模人权侵害而采取的军事行动，通常以保护平民的道德责任为正当理由。
Responsibility to Protect (R2P): A principle adopted by the UN in 2005, holding that sovereignty entails a responsibility to protect populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing, and crimes against humanity, and that the international community should assist or intervene if a state fails to do so.
保护责任（R2P）： 联合国于2005年通过的原则，主张主权包含保护民众免受灭绝种族、战争罪、族裔清洗和危害人类罪之害的责任，若一国未能履行该责任，国际社会应予协助或干预。
Positive Rights: Rights that require active provision or action by the state, such as the right to education, healthcare, or housing, imposing an obligation to deliver certain services.
积极权利： 需要国家积极提供或行动方能实现的权利，如受教育权、医疗保健权或住房权，由此产生提供特定服务的义务。
Negative Rights: Rights that require the state and others to refrain from interfering, such as freedom of speech or freedom from torture, protecting individuals from external coercion.
消极权利： 要求国家及他人避免干涉的权利，如言论自由或免于酷刑的自由，保护个人免受外部强制。
8. Conflict and Security | 冲突与安全
Hard Power: The use of military and economic means to influence the behaviour or interests of other states, including coercive diplomacy, sanctions, and armed forces.
硬实力： 利用军事和经济手段影响他国行为或利益的方式，包括强制外交、制裁和武装力量。
Soft Power: The ability to attract and co-opt others through the appeal of a country’s culture, political values, and foreign policies rather than through coercion, a concept popularised by Joseph Nye.
软实力： 通过一国文化、政治价值观和外交政策的吸引力而非强制手段来影响和拉拢他国的能力，这一概念由约瑟夫·奈推广。
Terrorism: The deliberate use of indiscriminate violence against civilians, typically to instil fear and advance a political, religious, or ideological cause, increasingly transnational in nature.
恐怖主义： 故意对平民使用不分青红皂白的暴力，通常以制造恐惧和推进政治、宗教或意识形态目标为目的，日益呈现出跨国性质。
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT): An international treaty (1968) aimed at preventing the spread of nuclear weapons, promoting peaceful uses of nuclear energy, and advancing nuclear disarmament, with the majority of states as signatories.
《不扩散核武器条约》： 一项旨在防止核武器扩散、促进和平利用核能和推进核裁军的国际条约（1968年），绝大多数国家均已签署。
Collective Security: A system in which an attack against one member state is considered an attack against all, obliging collective response, as exemplified by NATO’s Article 5 commitment.
集体安全： 一种将对一个成员国的攻击视为对全体攻击、并责成集体作出反应的体系，北约第五条的承诺即为典型例证。
9. Globalisation and Economic Governance | 全球化与经济治理
Globalisation: The accelerating process of interaction and integration among people, companies, and governments across national borders, driven by international trade, investment, and information technology.
全球化： 在跨国贸易、投资和信息技术推动下，世界各地人员、企业和政府之间互动与融合不断加速的过程。
Washington Consensus: A set of free-market economic policy prescriptions promoted by the IMF, World Bank, and US Treasury during the 1980s, including fiscal discipline, trade liberalisation, and privatisation.
华盛顿共识： 20世纪80年代由国际货币基金组织、世界银行和美国财政部推行的一系列自由市场经济政策处方，包括财政纪律、贸易自由化和私有化。
World Trade Organization (WTO): An intergovernmental organisation that regulates international trade by providing a framework for negotiating trade agreements and resolving disputes among member states.
世界贸易组织： 通过提供谈判贸易协定和解决成员国争端的框架来规范国际贸易的政府间组织。
Multinational Corporation (MNC): A large company that operates and owns assets in more than one country, often possessing an economic power surpassing that of many states, such as Apple or Shell.
跨国公司： 在一个以上国家运营并拥有资产的大型公司，其经济实力往往超过许多国家，例如苹果公司或壳牌公司。
Neoliberalism: An ideology advocating free markets, minimal state intervention, deregulation, and privatisation, which has profoundly influenced global economic governance since the late 20th century.
新自由主义： 倡导自由市场、最小限度的国家干预、放松管制和私有化的意识形态，自20世纪后期以来深刻影响了全球经济治理。
10. Environment and Sustainability | 环境与可持续性
Sustainable Development: Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs, integrating economic growth, social inclusion, and environmental protection.
可持续发展： 既满足当代人的需求，又不损害后代人满足自身需求的能力的发展模式，融合了经济增长、社会包容和环境保护。
Paris Agreement: A legally binding international treaty on climate change adopted in 2015, aiming to limit global warming to well below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit it to 1.5 °C.
《巴黎协定》： 2015年通过的一项具有法律约束力的气候变化国际条约，旨在将全球变暖幅度控制在远低于工业化前水平2 °C之内，并努力将升温限制在1.5 °C。
Tragedy of the Commons: A situation in which individuals, acting independently according to their own self-interest, deplete a shared resource, such as fish stocks or clean air, even when it is clear that it is against the common long-term good.
公地悲剧： 个体基于自身利益独立行动，最终耗尽共享资源的情形，例如鱼群或清洁空气，即便明知这与共同的长期利益相悖。
Carbon Neutrality: Achieving net zero carbon dioxide emissions by balancing emissions with carbon removal or offsetting, a goal often set by states for 2050 in line with climate pledges.
碳中和： 通过平衡碳排放与碳清除或抵消来实现二氧化碳净零排放，是许多国家根据气候承诺为2050年设定的目标。
Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR): A principle of international environmental law acknowledging that all states have a shared obligation to address environmental destruction, but their historical contributions and capacities differ, hence responsibilities must vary accordingly.
共同但有区别的责任： 国际环境法的一项原则，承认所有国家都有解决环境破坏的共同义务，但因历史贡献和能力不同，责任也须相应有所差异。
Published by TutorHao | Politics Revision Series | aleveler.com
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