📚 Year 12 CAIE Philosophy: Vocabulary & Terminology Quick Memorisation Guide | Year 12 CAIE 哲学：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering the technical vocabulary in CAIE AS Philosophy can feel like learning a new language. This guide breaks down essential terms from epistemology, the idea of God, ethical theory, and philosophy of mind into bite-sized definitions, etymological roots, and memorable cues. Use it alongside your revision to build fluency and precision in exam answers.
掌握CAIE AS 哲学中的专业术语就像学习一门新语言。这份指南将认识论、上帝的观念、伦理学理论以及心灵哲学的核心词汇拆解成易消化的定义、词根和记忆线索。结合复习使用，能帮助你在考卷中写出更准确、更流利的答案。
1. Epistemology: Reason, Experience and A Priori | 认识论：理性、经验与先天知识
Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature, sources and limits of knowledge. The Greek root ‘episteme’ means knowledge or understanding.
认识论（Epistemology）是研究知识的本质、来源与限度的哲学分支。其希腊词根 ‘episteme’ 意为知识或理解。
A priori knowledge – knowledge that is justified independently of sensory experience, such as mathematical truths (2 + 2 = 4). Think ‘prior’ to experience.
先天知识（A priori knowledge）—— 无需依赖感官经验即可获得辩护的知识，例如数学真理 (2 + 2 = 4)。联想 ‘prior’（在……之前），即先于经验。
A posteriori knowledge – knowledge that depends on sensory experience or empirical evidence, e.g., ‘The cat is on the mat’. ‘Post’ means after.
后天知识（A posteriori knowledge）—— 依赖感官经验或经验证据的知识，如“猫在垫子上”。’Post’ 意为之后。
Analytic proposition – a statement that is true by virtue of the meanings of the words, such as ‘All bachelors are unmarried’. The predicate is contained in the subject.
分析命题（Analytic proposition）—— 凭借词语含义即为真的陈述，例如“所有单身汉都未婚”。谓词包含在主词之中。
Synthetic proposition – a statement whose truth depends on how the world is, not merely on word meanings, e.g., ‘The cat is black’. It synthesises new information.
综合命题（Synthetic proposition）—— 其真值取决于世界实际状态的陈述，而非仅靠词义，如“这只猫是黑色的”。它综合了新的信息。
Necessary truth – something that could not have been otherwise; it must be true in all possible worlds. Denying it entails a contradiction.
必然真理（Necessary truth）—— 不可能为假；它在所有可能世界中都为真。否定它会导致矛盾。
Contingent truth – something that is true but could have been false. ‘Paris is the capital of France’ is contingent because history could have turned out differently.
偶然真理（Contingent truth）—— 实际为真但本可能为假。比如“巴黎是法国首都”是偶然的，因为历史可能走向不同结果。
| Term | Memory Cue |
|---|---|
| A priori | Prior to experience |
| A posteriori | Post-experience |
| Analytic | Analyse the words – truth by definition |
| Synthetic | Synthesise with world |
| Necessary | Must be true, no escape |
| Contingent | Could have gone either way |
2. Rationalism and Key Terms from Descartes | 理性主义与笛卡尔关键术语
Rationalism – the epistemological view that reason is the primary source of knowledge, and that at least some concepts and knowledge are innate. The Latin ‘ratio’ means reason.
理性主义（Rationalism）—— 主张理性是知识首要来源的认识论立场，认为至少某些概念和知识是天赋的。拉丁词 ‘ratio’ 意为理性。
Innate ideas – ideas present in the mind from birth, not derived from experience. Descartes argued the idea of God and mathematical truths are innate.
天赋观念（Innate ideas）—— 与生俱来、不源于经验的心灵观念。笛卡尔认为上帝观念和数学真理就是天赋的。
The method of doubt – Descartes’ systematic strategy of doubting all beliefs that are not absolutely certain, in order to find an unshakeable foundation for knowledge.
怀疑方法（Method of doubt）—— 笛卡尔系统性地怀疑一切并非绝对确定的信念，以此找到不可动摇的知识基础的策略。
The Cogito – ‘I think, therefore I am’ (Cogito, ergo sum). Even if an evil demon deceives me, I must exist as a thinking thing to be deceived.
我思（The Cogito）—— “我思故我在”。即便有一个邪恶精灵欺骗我，为了被欺骗，我作为思考者必须存在。
Clear and distinct perception – Descartes’ criterion of truth: what is perceived clearly (present to the attentive mind) and distinctly (sharply separated from other ideas) cannot be doubted.
清楚明晰的知觉（Clear and distinct perception）—— 笛卡尔的真理标准：清楚呈现于专注心灵且明晰地与其他观念区分开来的东西，不容怀疑。
Solipsism – the worry that only one’s own mind is sure to exist. It stems from radical doubt about the external world.
唯我论（Solipsism）—— 认为唯有自己的心灵确定存在的忧虑，源于对外部世界的彻底怀疑。
3. Empiricism: Locke, Berkeley and Hume | 经验主义：洛克、伯克利与休谟
Empiricism – the view that all knowledge originates in sense experience; the mind begins as a ‘blank slate’ (tabula rasa). The Greek ’empeiria’ means experience.
经验主义（Empiricism）—— 认为一切知识都源于感官经验；心灵起初是一块“白板”（tabula rasa）。希腊词 ’empeiria’ 意为经验。
Tabula rasa – Locke’s term for the mind before it receives sense data; nothing is innate, and all ideas come from sensation or reflection.
白板（Tabula rasa）—— 洛克形容心灵在接受感觉材料之前的状态；没有天赋观念，一切观念来自感觉或反思。
Primary qualities – qualities that exist in objects independently of perception, such as solidity, extension, motion, number. They are ‘in the thing’.
第一性质（Primary qualities）—— 存在于物体中、与知觉无关的性质，如坚实性、广延、运动、数量。它们在“物之中”。
Secondary qualities – powers to produce sensations in us, such as colour, taste, smell. They depend on the perceiver.
第二性质（Secondary qualities）—— 在我们心中产生感觉的能力，如颜色、味道、气味。它们依赖于感知者。
Idealism (Berkeley) – Esse est percipi: to be is to be perceived. Physical objects are collections of ideas and exist only when perceived by a mind.
唯心论（伯克利）（Idealism）—— 存在即被感知（Esse est percipi）。物理对象只是观念的集合，只在被心灵感知时存在。
Impressions and ideas (Hume) – Impressions are vivid, forceful sensory experiences; ideas are faint copies of impressions used in thinking and reasoning.
印象与观念（休谟）（Impressions and ideas）—— 印象是生动、有力的感官经验；观念是印象在思维中的微弱摹本。
Hume’s fork – All meaningful propositions are either ‘relations of ideas’ (analytic, a priori) or ‘matters of fact’ (synthetic, a posteriori). Any claim that fits neither is ‘sophistry and illusion’.
休谟之叉（Hume’s fork）—— 所有有意义的命题要么是“观念间的关系”（分析、先天），要么是“事实”（综合、后天）。既非此又非彼的，就是“诡辩和幻想”。
Problem of induction – Hume’s argument that we cannot rationally justify inferring the future from the past; our expectation that the sun will rise tomorrow is merely a habit or custom, not logical proof.
归纳问题（Problem of induction）—— 休谟的论证：我们不能理性地证明由过去推断未来的合理性；我们期待明天太阳会升起仅是习惯或习俗，而非逻辑证明。
4. The Ontological Argument and Related Concepts | 本体论论证及相关概念
Ontological argument – An a priori argument for God’s existence that moves from the definition of God as the greatest conceivable being to the conclusion that God must exist in reality. ‘Ontos’ is Greek for being.
本体论论证（Ontological argument）—— 一种先天论证，从上帝是“可设想的最伟大存在”这一定义，推出上帝必定在现实中存在。希腊词 ‘ontos’ 意为存在。
Anselm’s definition – God is ‘that than which nothing greater can be conceived’. Even the fool understands this definition; existing in reality is greater than existing only in the mind, so God must exist.
安瑟伦的定义—— 上帝是“不能设想比之更伟大的存在”。即便是愚顽人也理解这一定义；存在于现实中比只存在于心灵中更伟大，所以上帝必然存在。
Predicate – A property that something can have or lack. In ‘the apple is red’, ‘red’ is a predicate. Kant famously argued existence is not a real predicate.
谓词（Predicate）—— 某物可以具有或缺乏的属性。在“苹果是红的”中，“红”就是谓词。康德著名地论证，存在不是一个真正的谓词。
Necessary existence – A being that exists by its own nature and cannot fail to exist. For Descartes, existence belongs to God’s essence just as having three angles belongs to a triangle.
必然存在（Necessary existence）—— 一种依自身本性而存在、不可能不存在的存在者。在笛卡尔看来，存在属于上帝的本质，如同三内角属于三角形的本质一样。
Kant’s objection: ‘Being is obviously not a real predicate’
康德的反对：“存在显然不是一个真正的谓词”
5. Cosmological and Teleological Arguments | 宇宙论与目的论论证
Cosmological argument – An a posteriori argument that reasons from the existence of the universe to a first cause or necessary being. ‘Cosmos’ means ordered universe.
宇宙论论证（Cosmological argument）—— 一种后天论证，从宇宙的存在推论出第一因或必然存在者。’Cosmos’ 指出有序的宇宙。
The Kalam version – Everything that begins to exist has a cause; the universe began to exist; therefore the universe has a transcendent cause (often identified as God).
卡拉姆版本（The Kalam version）—— 凡是开始存在的事物都有原因；宇宙开始存在；因此宇宙有一个超验的原因（常被视为上帝）。
First cause / uncaused cause – In Aquinas’ Five Ways, the series of efficient causes cannot regress infinitely; there must be a first cause, which everyone calls God.
第一因/不自因的起因（First cause / uncaused cause）—— 在阿奎那的五路论证中，动力因的序列不能无限回溯；必有一个第一因，人人称之为上帝。
Teleological argument – The design argument. ‘Telos’ means purpose. It infers an intelligent designer from the order, complexity, and apparent purpose in nature.
目的论论证（Teleological argument）—— 设计论证。’Telos’ 意为目的。它从自然界的秩序、复杂性和明显的目的性推出一个理智的设计者。
Paley’s watchmaker analogy – If you find a watch, you infer a watchmaker because of its complexity for a purpose. Likewise, the eye or the universe points to a divine designer.
佩利的钟表匠类比（Paley’s watchmaker analogy）—— 如果你发现一块手表，你会因其目的性的复杂结构推断出钟表匠的存在。同样，眼睛或宇宙指向一位神圣的设计者。
Hume’s criticisms of design – The analogy is weak (the universe is not sufficiently like a machine); the argument does not establish a single, infinite, or morally good God.
休谟对设计论证的批判—— 类比薄弱（宇宙并不足够像一台机器）；该论证无法确立一位单一的、无限的或道德上善的上帝。
6. The Problem of Evil and Theodicies | 罪恶问题与神正论
The logical problem of evil – The inconsistent triad: if God is omnipotent and omnibenevolent, evil should not exist. Yet evil exists, so such a God does not exist.
逻辑版罪恶问题—— 不一致的三元组：如果上帝是全能和全善的，恶就不该存在。但恶存在，所以这样的上帝不存在。
The evidential problem – The sheer amount and distribution of gratuitous (pointless) suffering makes the existence of a loving God highly improbable.
证据版问题—— 大量且分布广泛的无谓（毫无意义）苦难使得慈爱的上帝的存在极不可信。
Theodicy – An attempt to justify God’s goodness in the face of evil. Derived from Greek ‘theos’ (God) and ‘dike’ (justice).
神正论（Theodicy）—— 面对恶而试图辩护上帝之善的努力。源于希腊语 ‘theos’（神）和 ‘dike’（正义）。
Free will defence – Evil results from the misuse of free will, which is a greater good that makes genuine moral relationships possible. A world with free beings is better than a world of automata.
自由意志辩护（Free will defence）—— 恶来自自由意志的误用，而自由意志是一种更大的善，使真正的道德关系成为可能。一个有自由受造物的世界优于一个自动机世界。
Best of all possible worlds – Leibniz’s theodicy: God, being perfectly good, chose to create the world that contains the greatest total perfection, even though it includes some evils.
所有可能世界中最好的—— 莱布尼茨的神正论：至善的上帝选择创造包含最大整全完善性的世界，即便其中包含某些恶。
7. Utilitarianism: Bentham and Mill | 功利主义：边沁与密尔
Utilitarianism – A consequentialist ethical theory: the right action is the one that maximises utility, typically understood as pleasure or happiness. ‘Utile’ means useful.
功利主义（Utilitarianism）—— 一种后果论伦理学理论：正当的行为就是最大化功利（通常理解为快乐或幸福）的行为。’Utile’ 意为有用的。
Principle of utility – ‘The greatest happiness for the greatest number’. An action is right in proportion as it tends to promote happiness.
功利原则（Principle of utility）—— “最大多数人的最大幸福”。一个行为的正当性与其促进幸福的倾向成比例。
Hedonic calculus – Bentham’s method for measuring pleasure and pain by considering intensity, duration, certainty, propinquity, fecundity, purity, and extent.
快乐计算法（Hedonic calculus）—— 边沁衡量快乐与痛苦的方法，考虑强度、持续期、确定性、远近性、生育性、纯洁性和范围。
Higher and lower pleasures – Mill’s distinction: intellectual and moral pleasures (higher) are qualitatively superior to mere sensual pleasures (lower). ‘It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied.’
高等快乐与低等快乐—— 密尔的区分：理智和道德的快乐（高等）在质上优于纯粹感官的快乐（低等）。“不满足的人好过满足的猪。”
Act utilitarianism – Each individual action is judged by the utility it produces directly.
行为功利主义（Act utilitarianism）—— 每一个体行为都直接依据其所产生的效用来评判。
Rule utilitarianism – An action is right if it conforms to a rule that, if generally followed, would produce the greatest utility.
规则功利主义（Rule utilitarianism）—— 一个行为是正当的，如果它符合一条普遍遵循就能产生最大功利的规则。
8. Deontology: Kantian Ethics | 义务论：康德伦理学
Deontology – From Greek ‘deon’ (duty). Ethical theory that certain acts are morally required, forbidden, or permitted regardless of their consequences. Duty for duty’s sake.
义务论（Deontology）—— 源于希腊语 ‘deon’（义务）。主张某些行为无论后果如何，在道德上是必须、禁止或允许的。为义务而义务。
Good will – The only thing that is good without qualification. It shines ‘like a jewel’ even if it produces no results.
善良意志（Good will）—— 唯一无条件的善。即便未产生任何结果，它依然“有如宝石”般闪耀。
Categorical imperative (first formulation) – ‘Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.’ Test your maxim by universalising it.
定言命令（第一公式）—— “只依照你能够同时意愿其成为普遍法则的准则去行动。” 通过可普遍化来检验你的准则。
Maxim – The subjective principle of volition behind an action; a rule that describes what you are doing and why.
准则（Maxim）—— 行为背后的主观意志原则；描述你在做什么及其理由的规则。
Second formulation (humanity formula) – ‘Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of another, always at the same time as an end, never merely as a means.’
第二公式（人性公式）—— “你要这样行动，永远把你自己人格中的人性以及他人人格中的人性同时用作目的，而决不只用作手段。”
9. Virtue Ethics | 美德伦理学
Virtue ethics – An approach focused on the agent’s character and virtues (arete) rather than rules (deontology) or consequences (consequentialism).
美德伦理学（Virtue ethics）—— 关注行动者品格和美德（arete），而非规则（义务论）或后果（后果论）的伦理学进路。
Eudaimonia – Often translated as ‘happiness’ or ‘flourishing’; the final end of all human action, a life of rational activity in accordance with virtue.
幸福/繁荣（Eudaimonia）—— 常译为“幸福”或“繁盛”；人类一切行动的最终目的，即符合德性的理性活动的生活。
Virtue as a mean – Aristotle’s doctrine: every moral virtue lies in an intermediate state between excess and deficiency. Courage is the mean between rashness and cowardice.
中道（Virtue as a mean）—— 亚里士多德的学说：每种道德德性都处于过度与不足之间的中道。勇敢是鲁莽与怯懦的中道。
Phronesis – Practical wisdom or prudence; the intellectual virtue that enables a person to perceive what the right action is in a specific situation and to choose the mean.
实践智慧（Phronesis）—— 实践智慧或审慎；一种理智德性，使人能在具体情境中洞察正当的行动并选择中道。
10. Philosophy of Mind: Dualism and Physicalism | 心灵哲学：二元论与物理主义
Dualism
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