📚 Year 13 AQA Sociology: Rapid Revision Guide to Key Terms | AQA 社会学 A2 词汇术语速记指南
Mastering sociological vocabulary is essential for top marks in AQA Year 13 papers — precise terminology demonstrates theoretical depth, strengthens analytical essays, and unlocks the higher-band marks in both the Crime and Deviance, Beliefs in Society, and Theory and Methods sections. This guide pairs definitions with memory hacks, ensuring you recall the right concept at the right moment under exam pressure.
掌握社会学术语是 AQA 高年级考试取得高分的关键——准确的词汇能展现理论深度、增强分析性论文，并在“犯罪与越轨”、“信仰社会学”以及“理论与方法”部分获得高分。本指南将定义与记忆技巧配对，确保你在考试压力下能在正确时刻回忆起正确的概念。
1. Sociological Theories: Consensus & Conflict | 社会学理论：共识论与冲突论
Functionalism: A structural-consensus theory that sees society as a system of interdependent institutions — the family, education, religion — each performing functions that maintain social order and value consensus (Durkheim’s organic analogy; Parsons’ AGIL schema).
功能主义：一种结构共识理论，将社会视为一个相互依赖的制度系统——家庭、教育、宗教——每个制度发挥功能以维持社会秩序和价值共识（涂尔干的有机类比；帕森斯的 AGIL 图式）。
Marxism: A structural-conflict theory arguing society is based on exploitation — the bourgeoisie own the means of production while the proletariat sell their labour; superstructure (state, media) reflects the economic base and legitimises ruling-class ideology (Althusser’s ideological state apparatuses).
马克思主义：一种结构冲突理论，认为社会建立在剥削之上——资产阶级拥有生产资料，无产阶级出卖劳动力；上层建筑（国家、媒体）反映经济基础并使统治阶级意识形态合法化（阿尔都塞的意识形态国家机器）。
Hegemony (Gramsci): Ideological leadership exercised by the ruling class through consent rather than coercion; civil society institutions spread bourgeois values so that subordinate groups see the existing order as common sense.
霸权（葛兰西）：统治阶级通过同意而非强制行使的意识形态领导权；市民社会机构传播资产阶级价值观，使从属群体将现有秩序视为常识。
Feminism (general): A conflict perspective that places gender inequality at the centre; all variants agree society is patriarchal but differ on causes and solutions — liberal (legal reform), marxist (capitalism), radical (male power/biology).
女性主义（一般）：一种以性别不平等为中心的冲突视角；所有流派都同意社会是父权制的，但对原因和解决办法有分歧——自由派（法律改革）、马克思主义派（资本主义）、激进派（男性权力/生物学）。
Memory aid: Link theorists to their ‘first letter’ — Durkheim = Division of labour, Marx = Money and Means of production, Parsons = Pattern variables and Socialisation, Gramsci = Government of consent.
记忆辅助：将理论家与他们的“首字母”关联——Durkheim = Division of labour, Marx = Money and Means of production, Parsons = Pattern variables and Socialisation, Gramsci = Government of consent.
2. Feminism and Social Action Theories | 女性主义与社会行动理论
Liberal feminism: Focuses on sex discrimination and unequal opportunities, seeking change through legislation — e.g. the Equal Pay Act; assumes gradual reform within existing structure can achieve equality.
自由女性主义：关注性别歧视和不平等机会，通过立法寻求变革——如《同酬法案》；假定在现有结构内逐步改革可实现平等。
Radical feminism: Argues patriarchy is the oldest and most fundamental form of oppression, rooted in women’s reproductive role and male violence; solutions include separatism and reclaiming female power (Firestone, Greer).
激进女性主义：认为父权制是最古老且最根本的压迫形式，根植于女性的生育角色和男性暴力；解决办法包括分离主义与重夺女性权力（费尔斯通、格里尔）。
Social action (Weber): Emphasises meanings actors attach to their behaviour; verstehen — empathetic understanding — is essential to explain social phenomena. Levels: structural, cause, meaning.
社会行动（韦伯）：强调行动者赋予其行为的意义；理解——移情性理解——对于解释社会现象至关重要。层次：结构、原因、意义。
Symbolic interactionism (Mead, Blumer): Society is built through micro-level interactions; individuals interpret symbols and negotiate meanings; the ‘self’ emerges through social interaction (looking-glass self, Cooley).
符号互动论（米德、布鲁默）：社会通过微观互动建构；个体解释符号并协商意义；“自我”通过社会互动产生（镜中我，库利）。
Labelling theory (Becker): Deviance is not inherent in an act but a consequence of the label applied by powerful agents; a ‘master status’ overrides other identities, leading to self-fulfilling prophecy and deviant careers.
标签理论（贝克尔）：越轨并非行为固有的，而是权力机构施加的标签所致；“主我地位”压倒其他身份，导致自我实现预言和越轨生涯。
Memory hack: ‘SLIME’ — S for Symbolic interactionism, L for Labelling, I for Interpretivism, M for Micro-level, E for Empathy (verstehen).
记忆妙招：“SLIME”——S 符号互动论，L 标签，I 解释主义，M 微观层面，E 移情（理解）。
3. Postmodernism and Globalisation | 后现代主义与全球化
Meta-narrative (Lyotard): An overarching story or grand theory claiming universal truth — e.g. Marxism, religion, science as progress. Postmodernism is defined by ‘incredulity towards meta-narratives’.
宏大叙事（利奥塔）：宣称普遍真理的包罗万象的故事或大理论——如马克思主义、宗教、作为进步的科学。后现代主义以“对宏大叙事的质疑”为特征。
Hyperreality (Baudrillard): A condition where representations (simulacra) replace reality so that there is no longer a distinction between real and copy; the media presents a ‘desert of the real’ and we consume signs rather than objects.
超真实（鲍德里亚）：再现（拟像）取代了现实，以至于真实与复制品之间不再有区别；媒体呈现“真实的荒漠”，我们消费符号而非实物。
Cultural hybridity: The merging of cultural elements due to migration and media flows, producing new, fluid identities — e.g. ‘Brasian’ (British Asian), fusion cuisine, music genres. Challenges essentialist views of culture.
文化杂合：因移民和媒体流动带来的文化元素融合，产生新的、流动的身份——如“英亚”（英籍亚裔）、融合菜系、音乐流派。挑战文化本质主义观点。
Global village (McLuhan): Electronic media connects the world so that distance becomes irrelevant; events are experienced simultaneously, creating a sense of global community.
地球村（麦克卢汉）：电子媒体将世界连接起来，距离变得无关紧要；事件被同时体验，营造全球共同体感。
Time-space compression (Harvey): The acceleration of economic and social processes that shrinks distances and alters our experience of time; characteristic of globalisation and flexible accumulation.
时空压缩（哈维）：经济与社会进程加速，缩短距离并改变我们对时间的体验；全球化和弹性积累的特征。
Memory phrase: ‘Past Modern Grand Theories Gone’ — Postmodernism sees Grand theories Gone.
记忆短语：“Past Modern Grand Theories Gone”——后现代主义认为 Grand theories Gone。
4. Education: Key Concepts | 教育：核心概念
Cultural capital (Bourdieu): The knowledge, language, tastes and dispositions possessed by the middle class that the education system values and rewards, thereby reproducing class inequality.
文化资本（布迪厄）：中产阶级拥有的知识、语言、趣味和性情，教育系统予以重视和奖励，从而再生产阶级不平等。
Correspondence principle (Bowles & Gintis): The organisation of schools mirrors the capitalist workplace — hierarchy, competition, punctuality — to produce a docile, obedient workforce accepting of exploitation.
对应原则（鲍尔斯和金蒂斯）：学校的组织镜像了资本主义工作场所——等级制、竞争、准时——以培养顺从、接受剥削的劳动力。
Hidden curriculum: The informal learning of norms, values and attitudes — such as conformity, punctuality, deference to authority — taught through school routines and relationships rather than formal lessons.
隐性课程：通过学校的日常运作和关系而非正式课程传授的非正式规范、价值观和态度——如服从、守时、尊重权威。
Marketisation of education (Ball): The policy of introducing market forces — league tables, formula funding, parental choice — turning schools into businesses competing for ‘customers’; creates ‘myth of parentocracy’.
教育市场化（鲍尔）：引入市场力量的政策——排名表、公式拨款、家长择校——将学校变成竞争“顾客”的企业；制造了“家长治校神话”。
Ethnocentric curriculum: A curriculum that prioritises the culture, history and language of the dominant ethnic group — typically white British — marginalising or excluding minority ethnic histories and perspectives (Troyna).
种族中心课程：一种优先呈现主导族群——通常是英国白人——文化、历史和语言的课程，边缘化或排斥少数族裔历史和视角（特罗伊纳）。
Memory image: ‘3C-E’ for Education: Cultural capital, Correspondence, Curriculum (Hidden + Ethnocentric), Market (Competition).
记忆图像：教育的“3C-E”——文化资本(Cultural capital)、对应(Correspondence)、课程(Curriculum, 隐性+种族中心)、市场(Market)。
5. Families and Households: Diversity | 家庭与住户：多样性
Nuclear family: A two-generation household consisting of a married heterosexual couple and their biological or adopted children; often assumed as the ‘ideal’ by functionalists.
核心家庭：由已婚异性伴侣及其亲生或收养子女组成的二代户；常被功能主义者假定为“理想”家庭。
Beanpole family: A vertically extended, multi-generational family structure with few members in each generation — due to declining fertility and increased life expectancy; grandparents, parents and one or two children.
竿豆家庭：纵向扩展的多代家庭结构，各代成员少——因生育率下降和预期寿命延长；祖辈、父辈和一两个孩子。
Symmetrical family (Willmott & Young): A nuclear family in which conjugal roles are more similar and shared — partners both do paid work and share domestic tasks; characteristic of Stage 3 of family development.
对称家庭（威尔莫特和扬）：一种夫妻角色更相似和分担的核心家庭——伴侣都从事有偿工作并分担家务；家庭发展第三阶段的特征。
Personal life perspective (Smart): Moves beyond structural definitions to focus on how individuals define their significant relationships — may include ‘chosen families’ of friends, ex-partners, or even pets — reflecting connectedness rather than obligation.
个人生活视角（斯马特）：超越结构定义，关注个体如何定义其重要关系——可能包括朋友、前伴侣甚至宠物的“选择的家庭”——反映联结而非义务。
Cohabitation: Living together as a couple without being married; now the fastest-growing family type in the UK — often a prelude to, or alternative to, marriage.
同居：作为伴侣共同生活但未结婚；现为英国增长最快的家庭类型——常为结婚的前奏或替代。
Memory string: ‘Nuclear Bean Symm Cohab Personal’ — picture a nuclear family eating beans symmetrically while cohabiting and personalising their flat.
记忆串：“Nuclear Bean Symm Cohab Personal”——想象一个核心家庭对称地吃着豆子，一边同居一边个性化他们的公寓。
6. Beliefs in Society: Religion and Ideology | 信仰社会学：宗教与意识形态
Sacred and profane (Durkheim): Sacred objects/times are set apart and inspire awe; profane are ordinary. Religion is not about gods but the collective effervescence generated by rituals, uniting society via collective conscience.
神圣与世俗（涂尔干）：神圣物/时刻被隔离并引发敬畏；世俗是日常的。宗教并非关于神，而是仪式产生的集体欢腾，通过集体良知团结社会。
Secularisation: The process by which religious thinking, practice and institutions lose social significance — measured by declining church attendance, membership, and authority (Wilson); post-modernists counter with ‘believing without belonging’ (Davie).
世俗化：宗教思想、实践和机构失去社会重要性的过程——通过教会出席率、成员数和权威的下降来衡量（威尔逊）；后现代主义者以“相信但不归属”反驳（戴维）。
Religious market theory (Stark & Bainbridge): Religion thrives where there is a free market of religions; competition makes churches more effective ‘firms’; lack of state religion in USA explains higher religiosity compared to UK.
宗教市场理论（斯塔克和班布里奇）：在宗教自由市场中宗教兴盛；竞争使教会成为更有效的“企业”；美国缺乏国教解释了其高于英国的宗教虔诚度。
Cultural defence (Bruce): Religion serves as a ‘cultural defence’ when an ethnic group feels threatened by a dominant culture — e.g. Catholicism for Polish immigrants in Scotland — preserving identity and solidarity.
文化辩护（布鲁斯）：当一个族群感受到主导文化威胁时，宗教充当“文化辩护”——如苏格兰波兰移民的天主教——维护身份与团结。
New Age movements: A loose collection of self-spiritual practices — crystals, meditation, holistic healing — focusing on personal growth and subjective experience; reflect postmodern pick-and-mix spirituality (Heelas).
新纪元运动：一个松散的自灵性实践集合——水晶、冥想、整体疗愈——关注个人成长和主观体验；反映了后现代的拼盘式灵性（希拉斯）。
Memory mnemonic: ‘SACRED MR+N’ — Sacred/profane, Secularisation, Cultural defence, Religious market, New Age.
记忆助记：“SACRED MR+N”——神圣/世俗(Sacred/profane)、世俗化(Secularisation)、文化辩护(Cultural defence)、宗教市场(Religious market)、新纪元(New Age)。
7. Crime and Deviance: Theory and Control | 犯罪与越轨：理论与控制
Anomie (Merton): A structural strain where culturally prescribed goals (wealth, success) are emphasised more than institutionalised means, leading to adaptations: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, rebellion.
失范（默顿）：一种结构性紧张，文化规定的目标（财富、成功）比制度化手段更受强调，导致适应模式：遵从、创新、仪式主义、退却主义和反叛。
Subcultural theory (A. Cohen): Working-class boys face status frustration because they cannot achieve middle-class standards, so they invert values and form delinquent subcultures that reward non-utilitarian deviance.
亚文化理论（柯恩）：工人阶级男孩因无法达到中产标准而面临地位挫败，因此颠倒价值观并形成奖励非功利性越轨的偏差亚文化。
Moral panic (S. Cohen): Media amplify a threat, create folk devils, and generate panic; the public demands action, prompting control measures and crackdown — e.g. the mods and rockers panic of the 1960s.
道德恐慌（科恩）：媒体放大威胁、制造民间恶魔并产生恐慌；公众要求行动，促使控制措施和打压——如20世纪60年代的摩德族和摇滚族恐慌。
Surveillance (Foucault): Disciplinary power operates through observation and normalisation; the panopticon metaphor — a prison where inmates may be watched at any moment — induces self-discipline; modern CCTV, digital tracking extend disciplinary gaze.
监控（福柯）：规训权力通过观察和规范化运作；全景敞视隐喻——囚犯随时可能被监视的监狱——诱导自我规训；现代闭路电视、数字追踪延伸了规训凝视。
Relative deprivation (Lea & Young): Crime occurs when individuals or groups see themselves as unfairly deprived compared to others they compare with; explains why crime rose during affluence — rising expectations frustrated.
相对剥夺（利亚和扬）：当个体或群体与参照对象比较而认为自己遭受不公剥夺时，犯罪发生；解释了为何富足时期犯罪上升——期望升高受挫。
Memory trick: ‘ASSUMES’ crime — Anomie/Strain, Subculture, Surveillance, Underclass (omitted you can add), Moral panic, Edgework/Relative deprivation (you can adapt). Just remember key terms.
记忆窍门：“ASSUMES”犯罪——Anomie/Strain, Subculture, Surveillance, Underclass, Moral panic, Edgework/Relative deprivation。记住首字母组合。
8. Research Methods: Core Terms | 研究方法：核心术语
Validity: The extent to which a method measures what it is supposed to measure; qualitative methods (interviews, observations) boast high ecological validity because they capture lived experience.
效度：一种方法测量其预期要测量的事物的程度；质性方法（访谈、观察）因捕捉鲜活经验而具有较高的生态效度。
Reliability: Consistency and replicability of findings; if another researcher repeats the study would they get the same results? High in structured questionnaires and laboratory experiments.
信度：研究结果的一致性和可重复性；若另一位研究者重复该研究是否会得到相同结果？在结构化问卷和实验室实验中较高。
Representativeness: How well the sample mirrors the target population; random sampling enhances representativeness, while volunteer or snowball sampling reduces it.
代表性：样本多大程度上反映目标总体；随机抽样增强代表性，而志愿者或滚雪球抽样则降低代表性。
Positivism vs Interpretivism: Positivists seek objective facts, favour quantitative data, and see sociology as a science (Durkheim’s ‘social facts’); Interpretivists seek understanding (‘verstehen’), favour qualitative data, and reject the natural-science model.
实证主义与解释主义：实证主义者寻求客观事实，偏爱定量数据，视社会学为一门科学（涂尔干的“社会事实”）；解释主义者追求理解（“同理”），偏爱定性数据，拒绝自然科学模型。
Triangulation: The use of multiple methods or data sources to cross-check findings, increasing validity and credibility; e.g. combining surveys with focus groups.
三角验证：使用多种方法或数据源交叉检验研究结果，提高效度和可信度；如结合问卷与焦点小组。
Ethical issues: The moral principles guiding research — protection from harm, informed consent, confidentiality, anonymity, and special care with vulnerable groups (children, prisoners); formalised by BSA guidelines.
伦理问题：指导研究的道德原则——免于伤害、知情同意、保密、匿名及对弱势群体（儿童、囚犯）的特殊照护；由 BSA 指南规范化。
Memory acronym: ‘VIPER’ — Validity, Interpretivism/Positivism, Ethics, Representativeness, Reliability. (Interchangeable order).
记忆首字母：“VIPER”——Validity, Interpretivism/Positivism, Ethics, Representativeness, Reliability。
9. Key Thinkers and Quick Mnemonics | 关键理论家与速记口诀
Durkheim: D for ‘Division of labour’, ‘Discipline’ (in education), ‘Dislike anomie’. He studied suicide, collective conscience, and functionalism.
涂尔干：D 代表“Division of labour (劳动分工)”、“Discipline (规训)”、“Dislike anomie (厌恶失范)”。他研究自杀、集体良知和功能主义。
Marx: M for ‘Money, Means of production, conflict’. Remember the base-superstructure model and class polarisation; ‘Mode of production’ changes history.
马克思：M 代表“Money (金钱), Means of production (生产资料), conflict (冲突)”。记住基础-上层建筑模型和阶级极化；“生产模式”改变历史。
Weber: W for ‘Work ethic (Protestant ethic), Verstehen, Western rationalisation’. He offered a multifaceted
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