Year 13 SQA Sociology: Formula & Theorem Quick Reference | Year 13 SQA 社会学：公式定理速查手册

📚 Year 13 SQA Sociology: Formula & Theorem Quick Reference | Year 13 SQA 社会学：公式定理速查手册

This quick reference compiles the essential theoretical “theorems”, conceptual frameworks, and statistical formulae needed for the Year 13 SQA Higher Sociology course. It is designed as a revision aid to help you recall key sociological perspectives, definitions, and the mathematical relationships used in research methods. Each section pairs a concise English explanation with a Chinese translation to support bilingual learners.

本速查手册汇集了 Year 13 SQA Higher 社会学课程所需的核心理论“定理”、概念框架以及统计公式，旨在帮助您快速回顾关键社会学视角、定义以及研究方法中使用的数学关系。每个部分都配以简明扼要的中英文对照，以支持双语学习者。

1. Functionalism | 功能主义

Society is viewed as a system of interrelated parts – institutions like the family, education, and religion – each performing functions that maintain social order and stability. Key theorists include Émile Durkheim, who introduced the concept of social facts and organic solidarity, and Talcott Parsons, who described the AGIL schema (Adaptation, Goal attainment, Integration, Latency).

社会被视为由相互关联的部分组成的系统——家庭、教育、宗教等制度，各自履行维持社会秩序与稳定的功能。主要理论家包括提出社会事实与有机团结概念的埃米尔·涂尔干，以及描述AGIL图式（适应、目标达成、整合、潜在模式维持）的塔尔科特·帕森斯。

Functionalism Theorem	功能主义定理
Value consensus is the cement of society.	价值共识是社会的粘合剂。
Deviance is functional – it reinforces boundaries and promotes social change (Durkheim).	越轨行为具有功能性——它强化了边界并促进社会变迁（涂尔干）。

2. Marxism | 马克思主义

Marxist sociology sees society as a structure built on economic foundations, where the bourgeoisie own the means of production and exploit the proletariat. The superstructure (law, politics, education) serves to legitimise the ruling class’s power. Base–superstructure model is a core theorem. Althusser adds the concept of ideological state apparatuses (ISAs) and repressive state apparatuses (RSAs).

马克思主义社会学将社会视为建立在经济基础上的结构，其中资产阶级拥有生产资料并剥削无产阶级。上层建筑（法律、政治、教育）服务于统治阶级权力的合法化。经济基础—上层建筑模型是核心定理。阿尔都塞补充了意识形态国家机器（ISAs）和镇压性国家机器（RSAs）的概念。

Theorem of class conflict: all history is the history of class struggle.
阶级冲突定理：所有历史都是阶级斗争的历史。
False consciousness: workers are unaware of their exploitation.
虚假意识：工人没有意识到自身被剥削。

3. Feminism | 女性主义

Feminist theory holds that society is patriarchal – male-dominated in all major institutions. Liberal feminism seeks legal equality; radical feminism targets patriarchy itself; Marxist/socialist feminism links women’s oppression to capitalism; intersectional feminism (Crenshaw) examines how gender, race, and class interlock.

女性主义理论认为社会是父权制的——在所有主要制度中均由男性主导。自由女性主义追求法律平等；激进女性主义直接针对父权制；马克思主义/社会主义女性主义将女性受压迫与资本主义联系起来；交叉性女性主义（克伦肖）考察性别、种族和阶级如何相互交织。

Patriarchy theorem: the personal is political.
父权制定理：个人的即政治的。
Triple shift: women perform paid work, housework, and emotional labour.
三重轮班：女性承担有酬工作、家务劳动和情感劳动。

4. Interactionism & Labelling Theory | 互动论与标签理论

Interactionists focus on micro-level, face-to-face interactions and the meanings individuals attach to actions. Becker’s labelling theorem states: deviance is not a quality of the act a person commits, but a consequence of the application by others of rules and sanctions to an ‘offender’. The self-fulfilling prophecy and master status are key spin-off concepts.

互动论者关注微观层面、面对面的互动以及个体赋予行动的意义。贝克尔的标签定理指出：越轨不是一个人所犯行为本身的特性，而是他人对“冒犯者”运用规则和制裁的后果。自证预言和主要身份是衍生出的关键概念。

Labelling theorem: social groups create deviance by making rules whose infraction creates deviance.
标签定理：社会群体通过制定规则创造了越轨，违反规则便制造了越轨者。
Definition of the situation (W.I. Thomas): if men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences.
情境定义（W.I.托马斯）：如果人们将情境定义为真实的，那么其结果就是真实的。

5. Stratification & Life Chances | 分层与生活机会

Social stratification refers to the hierarchical arrangement of individuals in society. Weber proposed a multi-dimensional model: class (economic), status (prestige), and party (power). This contrasts with Marx’s purely economic class division. Life chances, a concept from Weber, refer to the opportunities each individual has to improve their quality of life.

社会分层指个人在社会中的等级化安排。韦伯提出了一个多维模型：阶级（经济）、地位（声望）和党派（权力）。这与马克思纯粹的经济阶级划分形成对比。生活机会这一韦伯提出的概念，指的是每个人改善生活质量的机遇。

Stratification Theorem	分层定理
Social inequality is universal but variable in form (Davis & Moore).	社会不平等普遍存在，但形式各异（戴维斯与摩尔）。
The more equal a society, the better the well-being of all (Wilkinson & Pickett).	社会越平等，所有人的福祉就越好（威尔金森与皮克特）。

6. Anomie and Strain Theory | 失范与张力理论

Durkheim introduced anomie to describe a state of normlessness where societal regulation breaks down. Merton reformulated it into strain theory: society encourages success goals (e.g., wealth) but restricts legitimate means for some groups, leading to adaptations: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, rebellion. This is a classic theorem in the sociology of deviance.

涂尔干引入失范概念，用以描述社会规范缺失、调控崩溃的状态。默顿将其重构为张力理论：社会鼓励成功目标（如财富），却对某些群体限制合法手段，从而导致五种适应模式：顺从、创新、仪式主义、退却主义和反叛。这是越轨社会学中的一个经典定理。

Anomia equation (psychological level): individual anomie ∝ gap between aspirations and expectations.
失范等式（心理层面）：个体失范 ∝ 欲望与期望之间的差距。

7. Research Methods Formulae | 研究方法公式

Quantitative sociological research often employs statistical tests. Below are key formulae you must recognise and be able to apply in context. All symbols are written in Unicode for clarity.

定量社会学研究常使用统计检验。以下是您必须识别并能在上下文中应用的关键公式。所有符号均使用 Unicode 以清晰显示。

χ² = Σ (O – E)² / E

Chi-square test for independence: O = observed frequency, E = expected frequency. Used to test a relationship between two categorical variables.

独立性卡方检验：O = 观察频数，E = 期望频数。用于检验两个类别变量之间的关系。

r = Σ (x – x̄)(y – ȳ) / √[ Σ (x – x̄)² Σ (y – ȳ)² ]

Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r) measures the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two continuous variables. Values range from -1 to +1.

皮尔逊相关系数 (r) 衡量两个连续变量之间线性关系的强度和方向。数值范围为 -1 到 +1。

s = √[ Σ (x – x̄)² / (n – 1) ]

Sample standard deviation where x̄ is the mean and n is the sample size. Essential for calculating z-scores and standard errors.

样本标准差，其中 x̄ 为均值，n 为样本量。对于计算 z 分数和标准误至关重要。

z = (x – μ) / σ

Z-score formula for populations: x = raw score, μ = population mean, σ = population standard deviation.

总体 z 分数公式：x = 原始分数，μ = 总体均值，σ = 总体标准差。

t = (x̄₁ – x̄₂) / √(s₁²/n₁ + s₂²/n₂)

Independent samples t-test (assuming unequal variances). Used to compare two groups’ means.

独立样本 t 检验（假设方差不齐）。用于比较两组的均值。

8. Sampling Methods | 抽样方法

Sampling is crucial for generalisability. Probability sampling: simple random – every member has an equal chance; systematic – selecting every kth person; stratified – dividing population into strata then random sampling within each; cluster – randomly selecting clusters. Non-probability: opportunity, volunteer, snowball (used for hidden populations), and quota sampling.

抽样对于可推广性至关重要。概率抽样：简单随机——每个成员有同等被选中机会；系统抽样——每隔 k 人抽取一人；分层抽样——将总体分成层，然后在各层内随机抽样；整群抽样——随机选择群组。非概率抽样：便利抽样、志愿者抽样、雪球抽样（用于隐蔽人群）以及配额抽样。

Snowball sampling formula: no fixed formula, but sample grows by referrals: n₁ → n₂ → n₃…
雪球抽样公式：无固定公式，但样本通过推荐增长：n₁ → n₂ → n₃…

9. Key Sociological Theorems | 关键社会学定理

This section lists succinct statements that function as sociological laws or theorems, often tested in SQA papers.

本节列出充当社会学定律或定理的简洁陈述，常在 SQA 考试中考察。

The English Theorem	中文定理
The correspondence principle (Bowles & Gintis): the education system mirrors the workplace in its hierarchy and rewards.	呼应原则（鲍尔斯与金蒂斯）：教育体系在其等级结构与奖励机制上反映了工作场所。
Cultural capital (Bourdieu): middle-class children possess cultural knowledge that is valued by the education system.	文化资本（布迪厄）：中产阶级儿童拥有被教育体系看重的文化知识。
Self-fulfilling prophecy (Rosenthal & Jacobson): teacher expectations affect pupil performance.	自证预言（罗森塔尔与雅各布森）：教师期望会影响学生表现。
Glass ceiling: invisible barriers prevent women/minorities from reaching top positions.	玻璃天花板：无形的障碍阻止女性/少数族裔达到高层职位。
The dual burden / double shift: women do paid work and still perform the majority of housework.	双重负担/双班制：女性从事有偿工作的同时，仍承担大部分家务。

10. Understanding Education Policy | 理解教育政策

SQA Higher Sociology often examines the impact of educational policies on inequality. The tripartite system, comprehensivisation, marketisation (1988 Education Reform Act), and recent academisation are all key. The theorem of “selection by mortgage” explains how catchment areas create socio-economic sorting.

SQA Higher 社会学常考察教育政策对不平等的影响。三方体系、综合学校化、市场化（1988年教育改革法）以及近期的学院化均为关键。“抵押贷款选拔”定理说明了学区如何造成社会经济分层。

Formula for educational attainment: Attainment = Cultural capital + Material capital + School quality
教育成就公式：成就 = 文化资本 + 物质资本 + 学校质量
Policy–practice gap: the difference between policy intention and implementation outcome.
政策—实践差距：政策意图与实施结果之间的差异。

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Year 13 SQA Sociology: Formula & Theorem Quick Reference | Year 13 SQA 社会学：公式定理速查手册