📚 Edexcel AS Philosophy: Glossary Quick-Memorisation Guide | Edexcel AS 哲学：词汇术语速记指南
Welcome to a streamlined glossary designed for Edexcel AS Philosophy. The terms are grouped by topic in the order they normally appear in the specification, with concise English definitions immediately followed by lucid Chinese translations. This pairing helps you build bilingual fluency and master the conceptual vocabulary needed to analyse, evaluate and construct philosophical arguments under exam conditions.
欢迎使用这份为 Edexcel AS 哲学量身打造的术语速记指南。所有词条按考纲常见主题分组，每条先给出精练的英文释义，立刻辅以清晰的中文翻译。这种英中成对排列能帮你培养双语思维，真正掌握分析、评估与构建哲学论证所需的概念词汇，轻松应对考试。
1. Epistemology Essentials | 认识论核心术语
Epistemology: The branch of philosophy that investigates the nature, sources, limits and justification of knowledge; it asks ‘What is knowledge?’ and ‘How do we acquire it?’.
认识论：哲学分支，研究知识的本质、来源、限度与辩护；核心问题是“什么是知识？”以及“我们如何获得知识？”。
Propositional knowledge (knowledge-that): Knowledge expressed by a declarative sentence of the form ‘S knows that p’, where S is a subject and p is a proposition.
命题知识（知道某事）：由“S 知道 p”（S 为主体，p 为命题）这样的陈述句表达的知识。
Ability knowledge (knowledge-how): Practical knowledge involving skills, such as knowing how to ride a bicycle; contrasted with propositional knowledge.
能力知识（知道如何做）：涉及技能的实际知识，例如知道如何骑自行车；与命题知识相对。
Acquaintance knowledge (knowledge-of): Knowledge gained through direct experience of something, e.g. knowing a person or a place.
亲知知识（知道某物）：通过直接经验获得的知识，例如认识某个人或某个地方。
Justification: The reasons, evidence or warrant that turn a true belief into knowledge; it provides reliability and distinguishes knowledge from lucky guesses.
辩护（确证）：将真信念转化为知识的理由、证据或保证；提供可靠性，使知识区别于幸运的猜测。
2. The Tripartite View and Gettier | 三元定义与葛梯尔问题
Tripartite definition of knowledge (JTB): The classical view that knowledge is justified true belief; S knows that p if and only if (1) p is true, (2) S believes that p, and (3) S is justified in believing that p.
知识的三元定义（JTB）：经典观点认为知识是经过辩护的真信念；S 知道 p，当且仅当 (1) p 为真，(2) S 相信 p，(3) S 对 p 的信念得到了辩护。
Gettier case: A counterexample to the JTB definition in which a person has a justified true belief but intuitively lacks knowledge because the belief is true only by luck.
葛梯尔案例：针对 JTB 定义的反例，其中某人拥有辩护过的真信念，但由于信念的真完全依赖运气，直觉上不构成知识。
No false lemmas condition: A proposed fix for JTB: S knows that p if and only if S has a justified true belief that p and does not infer p from any falsehood.
无假前提条件：对 JTB 的修正提议：S 知道 p，当且仅当 S 对 p 拥有辩护过的真信念，并且该信念不是从任何虚假前提中推导出来的。
Infallibilism: The view that knowledge requires a justification so strong that it guarantees the truth of the belief; if you cannot be mistaken, then you know.
不可错论：主张知识需要极强辩护以确保信念为真；如果你不可能出错，那你就知道。
Reliabilism: A theory of knowledge according to which a belief counts as knowledge if it is produced by a reliable cognitive process, whether or not the believer can articulate the justification.
可靠主义：一种知识理论，认为只要信念由可靠的认知过程产生，就算拥有知识，无论主体能否说出辩护理由。
3. Perception: Direct Realism, Indirect Realism and Idealism | 知觉：直接实在论、间接实在论与唯心论
Direct realism: The common-sense theory that we perceive physical objects directly as they are in the mind-independent world; perception is immediate and unmediated.
直接实在论：常识性理论，认为我们直接感知物理对象在意识独立世界中的本来面貌；知觉是直接无中介的。
Indirect realism: The view that we perceive mind-independent objects indirectly via sense-data; what we are directly aware of are mental representations, not the objects themselves.
间接实在论：认为我们通过感觉予料间接感知意识独立的对象；直接觉知到的是心灵表象，而非对象本身。
Sense-data (singular: sense-datum): The immediate objects of perceptual experience according to indirect realism; e.g. patches of colour, sounds, smells that exist only in the mind.
感觉予料：间接实在论中知觉经验的直接对象；例如只存在于心灵中的色块、声音、气味。
Idealism (Berkeley’s idealism): The metaphysical theory that reality consists entirely of minds and their ideas; to be is to be perceived (esse est percipi).
唯心论（贝克莱唯心论）：形上学理论，主张实在完全由心灵及其观念构成；存在即被感知。
Veil of perception: A problem for indirect realism: if we only ever perceive sense-data, how can we know that mind-independent objects resemble them or even exist?
知觉帷幕：间接实在论面临的难题：如果我们只能感知感觉予料，又怎能知道意识独立的对象与之相似甚至存在？
Argument from illusion: The argument that because objects can appear differently from how they really are (e.g. a straight stick in water looks bent), we do not perceive objects directly but only sense-data.
错觉论证：由于物体看起来可以与其实际不同（如水中的直棍看起来是弯的），因此我们并非直接感知物体，而只是感知感觉予料。
4. Philosophy of Religion: The Concept of God | 宗教哲学：上帝概念
Theism: Belief in the existence of a personal God who is omnipotent, omniscient and supremely good (omnibenevolent), and who created and sustains the universe.
有神论：相信存在一个人格化的、全能、全知、全善的上帝，他创造并维持宇宙。
Omnipotence: The attribute of being all-powerful; philosophers debate whether this includes the ability to do logically impossible acts.
全能：拥有无限力量的属性；哲学家争论这是否包括能做出逻辑上不可能之事的能力。
Omniscience: The attribute of knowing everything — past, present, future and all possibilities.
全知：无所不知的属性——知道过去、现在、未来及一切可能性。
Omnibenevolence: The attribute of being perfectly good, both morally and in the sense of desiring the wellbeing of creation.
全善：道德上完全善良、希望所有受造物获得福祉的属性。
Eternal / Everlasting: ‘Eternal’ usually means being outside time altogether (timeless); ‘everlasting’ means existing at every moment of time without beginning or end.
永恒 / 永存：“永恒”通常指完全在时间之外（无时间性）；“永存”指时间上无始无终地存在。
5. Arguments for the Existence of God | 上帝存在的论证
Ontological argument (Anselm): An a priori argument that defines God as ‘that than which nothing greater can be conceived’ and concludes that such a being must exist in reality, because existing in reality is greater than existing only in the mind.
本体论论证（安瑟伦）：一种先验论证，将上帝定义为“无与伦比的伟大存在者”，并推出此存在者必然真实存在，因为在现实中存在比仅在心中存在更伟大。
Gaunilo’s island parody: Gaunilo replied to Anselm by applying the same reasoning to a perfect island, aiming to show that Anselm’s argument would absurdly prove the existence of any perfect thing.
高尼罗的岛屿反驳：高尼罗用同样的推理模式套用到最完美之岛上，意图表明安瑟伦的论证会荒谬地证明任何完美事物都存在。
Cosmological argument: An a posteriori argument that begins from the existence of the universe or contingent beings and infers a necessary being (God) as the ultimate cause or explanation.
宇宙论论证：一种后验论证，从宇宙或偶然存在者的存在出发，推断必然存在者（上帝）作为最终原因或解释。
Kalam cosmological argument: A version that emphasises the beginning of the universe: whatever begins to exist has a cause; the universe began to exist; therefore the universe has a cause (God).
卡拉姆宇宙论论证：强调宇宙有始的版本：一切开始存在的事物都有其原因；宇宙开始存在；所以宇宙有一原因（上帝）。
Contingent being: A being whose existence depends on something else; it could have not existed. A necessary being exists by its own nature and cannot fail to exist.
偶然存在者：其存在依赖于他物的存在者；它本可以不存在的存在者。必然存在者凭自身本性存在，不可能不存在的存在者。
6. Teleological Argument and the Problem of Evil | 设计论论证与恶的问题
Teleological / Design argument (Paley): An a posteriori argument that the complexity and apparent purposefulness of the natural world suggest an intelligent designer, just as a watch implies a watchmaker.
目的论 / 设计论论证（佩利）：后验论证，认为自然界的复杂性与明显的目的性暗示存在一位智慧设计者，正如钟表暗示钟表匠的存在。
Argument from analogy: An inductive argument that draws a conclusion based on relevant similarities between two things — e.g. the universe and a machine.
类比论证：一种归纳论证，依据两个事物间的相关相似性（如宇宙与机器）得出结论。
Hume’s criticisms of the design argument: Hume (through Philo) argues that the analogy between the universe and human artefacts is weak, that the universe might be more like a living organism, and that even if a designer existed it need not be the God of theism.
休谟对设计论论证的批评：休谟（借菲洛之口）指出宇宙与人造物的类比很弱，宇宙可能更像一个生物有机体，且即便存在设计者，也未必是有神论的上帝。
Problem of evil (logical and evidential): The logical problem claims that the existence of evil is logically incompatible with an omnipotent, omnibenevolent God. The evidential problem argues that the amount and distribution of evil makes God’s existence highly improbable.
恶的问题（逻辑恶问题与证据恶问题）：逻辑恶问题主张，恶的存在与全能全善的上帝在逻辑上不相容。证据恶问题认为，恶的数量与分布使得上帝的存在极为不可能。
Theodicy: An attempt to justify God’s permission of evil; for example, the free will defence or soul-making theodicy.
神义论：为上帝允许恶存在而辩护的尝试；例如自由意志辩护或灵魂塑造神义论。
7. Religious Language | 宗教语言
Cognitive language: Language that expresses factual claims that can be true or false; theists typically treat religious statements as cognitive.
认知性语言：表达可真可假的事实主张的语言；有神论者通常将宗教陈述视为认知性的。
Non-cognitive language: Language that does not assert facts but expresses emotions, commands or ways of life; e.g. ‘God exists’ might be an expression of a religious attitude.
非认知性语言：不陈述事实而表达情感、命令或生活方式的语言；例如“上帝存在”可能只是表达一种宗教态度。
Verification principle (Ayer): A statement is meaningful only if it is either analytic (true by definition) or empirically verifiable; since God-talk is neither, Ayer claims it is literally meaningless.
证实原则（艾耶尔）：一个陈述只有是分析的（凭定义为真）或可以被经验验证时才有意义；由于关于上帝的谈论两者皆非，艾耶尔声称其字面上无意义。
Falsification principle (Flew): A statement is meaningful only if the speaker can specify what would count against it; religious believers allow nothing to count against their belief, so it ‘dies the death of a thousand qualifications’ and becomes vacuous.
证伪原则（弗卢）：一个陈述只有说话者能指出什么可以驳倒它时才有意义；宗教信徒不让任何东西驳倒其信念，因此该信念“死于千种限定”，变得空洞。
Analogy (Aquinas): Aquinas argued that religious language uses analogy rather than univocal (same) or equivocal (completely different) meaning; terms like ‘good’ apply to God and creatures proportionally.
类比（阿奎那）：阿奎那主张宗教语言使用类比，而非单义（同义）或歧义（全异）；像“善”这类词以类比比例的方式适用于上帝和受造物。
8. Metaethics: Cognitivism and Non-cognitivism | 元伦理学：认知主义与非认知主义
Metaethics: The area of ethics that investigates the meaning of moral language, the nature of moral properties and whether moral judgements can be true or false.
元伦理学：伦理学领域，探究道德语言的意义、道德属性的本质，以及道德判断是否可真可假。
Moral realism: The cognitivist view that mind-independent moral facts exist and moral statements are objectively true or false.
道德实在论：一种认知主义观点，认为存在与心灵无关的道德事实，且道德陈述客观地为真或为假。
Error theory (Mackie): A cognitivist but anti-realist position: moral language aims to state facts, but all such statements are systematically false because no objective moral properties exist.
错误理论（麦凯）：一种认知主义但反实在论的立场：道德语言旨在陈述事实，但由于不存在客观道德属性，所有这类陈述系统性地为假。
Emotivism (Ayer, Stevenson): A non-cognitivist theory that moral utterances express the speaker’s emotions or attitudes and aim to evoke similar feelings in others; ‘Stealing is wrong’ is akin to ‘Stealing — boo!’.
情绪主义（艾耶尔、史蒂文森）：一种非认知主义理论，认为道德话语表达说话者的情感或态度，并旨在引发他人同感；“偷窃是错的”类似“偷窃——呸！”。
Prescriptivism (Hare): A non-cognitivist view that moral language prescribes universalisable action-guiding recommendations rather than stating facts; ‘Do not steal’ implies a command.
规约主义（黑尔）：一种非认知主义观点，认为道德语言发出可普遍化的行动指引，而非陈述事实；“勿偷窃”隐含命令。
9. Normative Ethical Theories | 规范伦理学理论
Normative ethics: The branch of ethics that proposes principles or standards for right action and good character; it asks ‘What ought I to do?’.
规范伦理学：伦理学分支，提出正当行动和优良品格的准则或标准；追问“我应当做什么？”。
Utilitarianism (Bentham, Mill): A consequentialist theory that holds the right action is the one that maximizes overall utility — usually happiness or pleasure — for all affected.
功利主义（边沁、密尔）：一种后果论理论，主张正当行为是能为所有受影响者带来最大总功利——通常是幸福或快乐——的行为。
Act utilitarianism: The principle that we should assess each individual action by its utility; the right act is the one that produces the greatest good in that particular situation.
行为功利主义：主张依据效用来评估每一个别行为的原则；正当行为即在特定情境下产生最大善的行为。
Rule utilitarianism: The view that we should follow moral rules that, if generally adopted, would maximise overall utility; rules are tested rather than individual acts.
规则功利主义：主张我们应遵循那些若被普遍采纳就能将总体功利最大化的道德规则；检验单位是规则而非个别行为。
Deontology (Kant): A duty-based ethical theory that emphasises acting out of respect for the moral law, expressed by the categorical imperative, rather than aiming at consequences.
义务论（康德）：基于义务的伦理学理论，强调出于对道德律的尊重而行动，道德律由绝对命令表述，而非着眼于后果。
Categorical imperative: Kant’s supreme principle of morality; one formulation is ‘Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.’
绝对命令：康德的最高道德原则；其一定义为：“只依照你同时愿意其成为普遍法则的准则去行动。”
Virtue ethics (Aristotle): An agent-centred theory that focuses on the cultivation of good character traits (virtues) and practical wisdom (phronesis), aiming at eudaimonia — human flourishing.
德性伦理（亚里士多德）：以主体为中心的伦理学理论，注重培养优良品质（德性）和实践智慧，以实现人的繁荣——eudaimonia。
10. Applied Ethics: Beginning Concepts | 应用伦理学入门概念
Sanctity of life: The principle that human life is intrinsically valuable and must be protected, often grounded in religious belief; it is central to debates on abortion and euthanasia.
生命神圣性：主张人类生命具有内在价值且必须受到保护的准则，常以宗教信仰为基础；是堕胎与安乐死争论的核心。
Quality of life: A standard that judges the value of life by factors such as the absence of pain, autonomy and dignity; it contrasts with the sanctity of life view.
生命质量：以无痛苦、自主性和尊严等因素评判生命价值的标准；与生命神圣观形成对比。
Personhood: The status of being a person, often characterised by self-consciousness, rationality and moral agency; determining when personhood begins and ends is crucial in ethical debates.
人格（位格）：作为人的地位，通常以自我意识、理性和道德能动性为特征；确定人格何时开始和结束在伦理争论中至关重要。
Consequentialism: The broader family of ethical theories that judge the rightness of an action solely by its outcomes or consequences; utilitarianism is its best-known form.
后果论：仅以行为结果或后果来判断行为正当性的更广伦理学理论家族；功利主义是其中最著名的形式。
Deontological constraints: Restrictions on action that must be observed regardless of the good consequences they might produce, e.g. not killing an innocent person.
义务论约束：无论能带来多少好后果都必须遵守的行为限制，例如不杀害无辜者。
11. Logic and Argumentation | 逻辑与论证术语
Argument: A set of statements in which one or more premises are intended to support a conclusion; not a mere disagreement.
论证：由一个或多个前提用来支持结论的一组陈述；不是单纯的争执。
Premise: A statement that provides reasons or evidence in an argument; the starting point of reasoning.
前提：在论证中提供理由或证据的陈述；推理的出发点。
Conclusion: The statement that the premises are meant to establish or make probable.
结论：前提旨在确立或使其成为很可能的陈述。
Deductive argument: An argument aiming for validity and soundness; if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true.
演绎论证：旨在有效且健全的论证；若前提为真，结论必然为真。
Inductive argument: An argument in which the premises support the conclusion as probable; truth is not guaranteed.
归纳论证：前提使结论很可能为真的论证；不作百分之百保证。
Validity: A property of a deductive argument where if the premises are true, the conclusion logically must be true; it concerns the structure, not the actual truth of the premises.
有效性：演绎论证的一项特性，指若前提为真，结论在逻辑上必然为真；关乎论证结构，与前提实际真假无关。
Soundness: A deductive argument is sound if it is valid and all its premises are actually true; a sound argument guarantees a true conclusion.
健全性：演绎论证若既有效且所有前提实际上为真，则它是健全的；健全的论证保证结论为真。
12. Common Logical Fallacies and Pitfalls | 常见逻辑谬误与陷阱
Begging the question (petitio principii): A circular argument where the conclusion is assumed in one of the premises, so no real support is provided.
乞题谬误：一种循环论证，结论已被包含在某个前提之中，并未提供真正支持。
Ad hominem: Attacking the person making the argument rather than engaging with the argument itself.
人身攻击：攻击提出论证的人而非针对论证本身。
Straw man: Misrepresenting an opponent’s view to make it easier to attack; refuting a weaker version of the argument.
稻草人：歪曲对手观点以便攻击；驳倒的是一个弱化版论证。
False dilemma: Presenting only two options when more are available, forcing an overly narrow choice.
假两难：在存在多个选项时只呈现两个，迫使做出过于狭隘的选择。
Slippery slope: Arguing that a particular action will inevitably lead to a chain of undesirable events without adequate justification for that inevitability.
滑坡谬误：主张某一行为将不可避免地导致一连串不良事件，却未给出充分理由证明这种必然性。
Post hoc ergo propter hoc: Concluding that because event A occurred before event B, A caused B; correlation is not causation.
后此谬误：因事件 A 先于事件 B 发生而推断 A 导致 B；相关不等于因果。
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