📚 GCSE Eduqas Sociology: Glossary & Key Terms Quick-Memorisation Guide | GCSE Eduqas 社会学：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering the specialist vocabulary is half the battle in GCSE Sociology. This bilingual revision guide compiles the must-know terms across all Eduqas core topics, with each English explanation immediately followed by a parallel Chinese explanation. Use it as a side-by-side reference to speed up memorisation and deepen your understanding of sociological perspectives, research methods, and key debates.
掌握专业词汇是 GCSE 社会学考试成功的一半。这份双语复习指南汇集了 Eduqas 全部核心专题中必须掌握的术语，每个英文解释后紧跟对应的中文解释。将它作为对照参考书使用，可以加速记忆，并加深你对于社会学视角、研究方法与关键辩论的理解。
1. Core Sociological Concepts | 核心社会学概念
These are the building blocks of sociology. A clear grasp of culture, socialisation, identity and norms will help you analyse every topic in the specification.
这些是社会学的基础构件。清晰地掌握文化、社会化、身份和规范等概念将帮助你分析考纲中的每一个主题。
Culture: The whole way of life of a society or group, including its language, beliefs, values, norms and customs that are learned and shared.
文化：一个社会或群体的整体生活方式，包括其学习并共享的语言、信仰、价值观、规范和习俗。
Socialisation: The lifelong process through which individuals learn the culture of their society. Primary socialisation occurs in the family during early childhood; secondary socialisation happens later through agencies such as schools, peer groups and the media.
社会化：个体学习其社会文化的终身过程。初级社会化发生在童年早期的家庭中；次级社会化随后通过学校、同辈群体和媒体等机构发生。
Norms: The unwritten rules of behaviour that are considered acceptable or expected in a particular social situation.
规范：在特定社会情境中被认为可接受或被期待的不成文行为规则。
Values: The broad beliefs about what is important, worthwhile and desirable that underpin a society’s norms.
价值观：关于什么是重要、有价值且可取的基本信念，是规范的基础。
Identity: An individual’s sense of self, shaped by socialisation and interactions with others. Social identities can be linked to class, gender, ethnicity, age and nationality.
身份：个体对自我的感知，由社会化及与他人的互动塑造而成。社会身份可与阶级、性别、种族、年龄和国籍等因素相关联。
Role: The expected pattern of behaviour associated with a particular status or position in society.
角色：与社会中某一特定地位或位置相关的被期待的行为模式。
Social control: The mechanisms, strategies and sanctions that societies use to regulate behaviour and maintain order. Formal social control is exercised by official agencies such as the police and courts; informal social control operates through family, peer pressure and community reactions.
社会控制：社会用来规范行为并维持秩序的机制、策略与奖惩。正式社会控制由警察、法院等官方机构实施；非正式社会控制则通过家庭、同辈压力和社区反应发挥作用。
Status: The social position a person holds. Ascribed status is fixed at birth (e.g. royalty, sex); achieved status is earned through personal effort or choice (e.g. occupation, educational qualification).
地位：一个人占据的社会位置。先赋地位是出生时就固定的（如王室身份、生理性别）；自致地位是通过个人努力或选择获得的（如职业、学历）。
2. Social Stratification and Inequality | 社会分层与不平等
Stratification refers to the hierarchical layering of groups in society based on wealth, power and prestige. This section focuses on class, life chances, and key theoretical perspectives.
分层指社会群体依据财富、权力和声望所形成的等级层次。本节重点关注阶级、生活机遇以及关键的理论视角。
Social stratification: A system by which a society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy, creating structured inequalities in access to resources and opportunities.
社会分层：社会将人群按等级排列的一种体系，造成了在资源与机会获取上的结构化不平等。
Social class: A group of people sharing a similar economic position, often measured by occupation, income, wealth and status. In the UK, common categories include the upper class, middle class and working class.
社会阶级：拥有相似经济地位的一群人，常以职业、收入、财富和地位来衡量。在英国，常见的类别包括上层阶级、中产阶级和工人阶级。
Life chances: A concept introduced by Max Weber referring to the opportunities people have to achieve economic prosperity, good health, educational success and overall quality of life. These are strongly influenced by class, gender and ethnicity.
生活机遇：马克斯·韦伯提出的概念，指人们实现经济富裕、良好健康、教育成功和整体生活质量的机会。这些机会深受阶级、性别和种族的影响。
Social mobility: The movement of individuals or groups between social strata. Intergenerational mobility compares children’s class position with that of their parents; intragenerational mobility tracks changes during a person’s own career.
社会流动：个人或群体在社会阶层之间的移动。代际流动比较子代与父代的阶级位置；代内流动则追踪一个人自身职业生涯中的变化。
Meritocracy: A system in which social positions are allocated on the basis of individual talent, effort and achievement rather than inherited privilege. Functionalists believe education helps create a meritocracy, but Marxists argue class barriers prevent true meritocracy.
精英治理：一种社会地位依据个人才华、努力和成就而非世袭特权来分配的体系。功能论者相信教育有助于创造精英治制，但马克思主义者则认为阶级壁垒阻碍了真正的精英治理。
Bourgeoisie and Proletariat: In Marxist theory, the bourgeoisie is the ruling class that owns the means of production; the proletariat is the working class that sells its labour. Conflict between the two is seen as the engine of historical change.
资产阶级与无产阶级：在马克思主义理论中，资产阶级是拥有生产资料的统治阶级；无产阶级是出卖劳动的工人阶级。两者之间的冲突被视为历史变革的动力。
Patriarchy: A system of society in which men hold the majority of power and privilege, and women are systematically disadvantaged. Feminist sociologists use this concept to analyse gender inequality in the family, workplace and education.
父权制：一种男性掌握大部分权力和特权、女性系统性地处于不利地位的社会制度。女性主义社会学家用此概念分析家庭、职场和教育中的性别不平等。
Absolute and relative poverty: Absolute poverty is a condition of severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food, water and shelter. Relative poverty is defined in relation to the living standards of the majority in a particular society, often set at below 60 percent of median household income.
绝对贫困与相对贫困：绝对贫困指严重缺乏食物、水和住房等基本人类需求的状态。相对贫困则是相对于特定社会中多数人生活标准来定义的，通常设定为家庭收入中位数的 60% 以下。
3. Families and Households | 家庭与住户
This topic explores family diversity, changing roles, and the functions of the family from different sociological perspectives. Understanding these terms will support essays on marriage, divorce and domestic labour.
本专题探讨家庭多样性、角色变化以及不同社会学视角下的家庭功能。理解这些术语将有助于你完成有关婚姻、离异和家务劳动的论述题。
Nuclear family: A two-generation family unit consisting of a married heterosexual couple and their dependent children living under one roof. Functionalists argue this family type is universal and best suited to perform essential functions.
核心家庭：由一对已婚异性夫妇及其未成年子女组成的两代家庭单位，同住一个屋檐下。功能论者认为这种家庭类型具有普遍性且最适合履行基本功能。
Extended family: A family structure that includes relatives beyond the nuclear unit, such as grandparents, aunts and uncles, either living together or in close geographical proximity.
扩展家庭：一种包含核心家庭之外亲属的家庭结构，如祖父母、叔伯姑姨等，他们或同住或在相近的地理范围内居住。
Reconstituted family (blended family): A family formed when one or both partners bring children from previous relationships into a new household, often after divorce or separation.
重组家庭（融合家庭）：伴侣一方或双方带着此前关系中的子女组成新家庭的形式，通常发生在离婚或分居之后。
Lone-parent family: A family headed by a single mother or father raising dependent children alone. This family type has increased significantly and is often linked to changing social attitudes and higher divorce rates.
单亲家庭：由单身母亲或父亲独自抚养未成年子女的家庭。这种家庭类型显著增多，常与变化的社会态度和较高的离婚率相关联。
Symmetrical family: A concept by Willmott and Young describing a family in which roles are more equal and shared between husbands and wives, both in paid work and domestic tasks.
对称家庭：威尔莫特和杨提出的概念，描述夫妻角色更加平等、在带薪工作和家务劳动中共同分担的家庭形态。
Domestic division of labour: The way household tasks are allocated between members of a household. Feminist research highlights that women often carry a dual burden (paid work plus housework) or a triple shift (paid work, housework and emotional labour).
家务分工：家务任务在家庭成员间分配的方式。女性主义研究强调女性常承担双重负担（带薪工作加家务）或三重轮班（带薪工作、家务及情感劳动）。
Primary socialisation of children: According to functionalists, this is a key function of the family, where children learn the basic norms and values of society, enabling them to integrate into the wider culture.
儿童的初级社会化：功能论者认为这是家庭的一个关键功能，儿童在此过程中习得社会的基本规范和价值观，从而能够融入更广泛的文化。
Cohabitation: Living together in a sexual relationship without being legally married. Cohabitation rates have risen as marriage has become less of a social expectation.
同居：未经法律结婚而共同居住的性伴侣关系。随着婚姻不再是普遍的社会期待，同居率已然上升。
4. Education | 教育
Sociologists study education not just as a system for passing on knowledge but also as a mechanism for socialisation, selection and sometimes the reproduction of inequality. These terms are central to exam questions on achievement, policy and the hidden curriculum.
社会学家不仅将教育视为传授知识的体系，还将其视为社会化、选拔、有时也是再生产不平等的机制。这些术语是有关学业成就、教育政策和隐性课程等考题的核心。
Formal curriculum: The planned programme of subjects and lessons taught in school, leading to qualifications and known to all stakeholders.
正式课程：学校中有计划地教授的科目和课程安排，导向资格证书，并为所有相关方所知。
Hidden curriculum: The informal learning of norms, values and attitudes that occurs through the routines, rituals and teacher-student interactions in school. For example, learning to be punctual, obedient and competitive.
隐性课程：通过学校中的常规、仪式和师生互动而发生的非正式规范、价值观和态度的学习。例如，学会守时、服从和竞争。
Correspondence principle: Bowles and Gintis argued that the structure of schooling mirrors the workplace. Hierarchies, rewards for conformity, and fragmented tasks prepare students to accept their future roles as obedient workers in a capitalist economy.
对应原则：鲍尔斯与金蒂斯认为，学校教育的结构反映了工作场所。等级制、服从获得奖励以及零散的任务，使学生准备好在资本主义经济中接受未来作为顺从工人的角色。
Labelling: The process by which teachers attach a positive or negative definition or label to a pupil (e.g. ‘bright’, ‘troublemaker’). Interactionists argue that labels can become internalised, leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy.
贴标签：教师给学生贴上积极或消极定义或标签（如“聪明”、“捣蛋鬼”）的过程。互动论者认为标签可能被内化，从而导致自我实现预言。
Self-fulfilling prophecy: When a false belief or prediction influences behaviour in such a way that it ultimately comes true. If a teacher predicts a student will underachieve, they may offer less support, and the student then performs poorly.
自我实现预言：错误的信念或预测以如此方式影响行为，以致其最终成真。若教师预言一名学生学业不佳，便可能减少支持，进而导致该生表现欠佳。
Setting and Streaming: Setting places pupils in different classes according to ability in a specific subject; streaming divides them into fixed groups across all subjects based on perceived general ability. Both can reinforce class-based differences in attainment.
分科分层与整体分轨：分科分层是根据某一特定科目的能力将学生编排至不同班级；整体分轨则是基于感知到的综合能力将学生划分到固定的跨学科组别。两者都可能加剧基于阶级的学业成就差异。
Material deprivation: A lack of the physical resources, such as adequate housing, nutrition, books and educational equipment, that can hinder a child’s academic performance.
物质剥夺：指缺乏充足的住房、营养、书籍和教育设备等物质资源，从而可能阻碍儿童的学业表现。
Cultural deprivation: The idea that some children are disadvantaged because their home background lacks the cultural capital, language skills, attitudes and values that educational success requires.
文化剥夺：指一些儿童因家庭背景缺乏教育成功所必需的文化资本、语言技能、态度和价值观而处于劣势的观点。
Ethnocentric curriculum: A curriculum that reflects the values, history and perspectives of the dominant ethnic group, often marginalising or ignoring the contributions of minority groups. Critics say this can affect minority pupils’ engagement and sense of belonging.
种族中心课程：反映主导族群价值观、历史与观点的课程，常常边缘化或忽视少数群体的贡献。批评者称这可能影响少数族裔学生的投入感与归属感。
5. Crime and Deviance | 犯罪与异常行为
This area examines what counts as deviant or criminal, why people break rules, and how society reacts. The terminology is vital for discussing official statistics, social construction and control.
这一领域探讨什么算作越轨或犯罪、人们为何违反规则以及社会如何反应。这些术语对讨论官方统计数据、社会建构和控制至关重要。
Deviance: Behaviour that violates the norms or expectations of a particular group or society. Deviance is not always criminal; for instance, wearing unusual clothing may be deviant but not illegal.
异常行为：违反特定群体或社会的规范或期待的行为。异常行为不总是犯罪；例如，穿着奇装异服可能是越轨的，但不违法。
Crime: An act that breaks a formal, written law and is punishable by the state. What counts as a crime varies across time and cultures.
犯罪：违反正式的成文法律并受国家惩处的行为。什么构成犯罪会随时代和文化而变。
Formal and informal social control: Formal control is carried out by authorised agents (police, courts, prisons) using written rules and sanctions. Informal control operates through socialisation, peer pressure, ridicule or praise within families, schools and communities.
正式与非正式社会控制：正式控制由获授权的机构（警察、法院、监狱）运用成文规则和制裁来实施。非正式控制则通过家庭、学校和社区内的社会化、同辈压力、嘲笑或表扬发挥作用。
Labelling theory: An interactionist perspective arguing that deviance is the result of others applying a label. Once labelled as deviant, an individual may adopt a deviant identity, leading to further rule-breaking.
标签理论：互动论的一种视角，认为异常行为是他人贴标签的结果。一旦被贴上越轨标签，个体就可能接纳越轨身份，导致进一步违规。
Deviancy amplification: A process described by Cohen in which media or police reactions to initial deviance exaggerate its scale, generating a moral panic and leading to an increase in the deviant behaviour they intended to control.
越轨放大：科恩描述的一个过程，媒体或警方对初始越轨行为的反应将其规模夸大，制造道德恐慌，并最终导致他们原本想要控制的越轨行为反而增多。
Moral panic: A widespread, exaggerated public concern or fear about a group or activity that is perceived as a threat to social order. Folk devils are the individuals or groups blamed for the problem.
道德恐慌：公众对被视作社会秩序威胁的群体或行为产生的广泛、夸大的担忧或恐惧。民间恶魔则是指因此问题而被指责的个人或群体。
Dark figure of crime: The amount of unreported or unrecorded crime that does not appear in official police statistics. Victim surveys and self-report studies try to uncover the dark figure.
犯罪黑数：未报案或未被记录的犯罪数量，不出现在官方警方统计中。受害者调查和自陈报告研究试图揭示犯罪黑数。
White-collar crime: Crimes committed by middle-class individuals or professionals in the course of their occupation, such as fraud, embezzlement or tax evasion. These are often less visible than street crime.
白领犯罪：中产阶级或专业人士在职业过程中实施的犯罪，如欺诈、挪用公款或逃税。这些犯罪通常比街头犯罪更不易被察觉。
Anomie: A concept developed by Durkheim to describe a state of normlessness or breakdown of social bonds, which can lead to increased deviance, especially during periods of rapid social change.
失范：涂尔干提出的概念，描述规范缺失或社会纽带断裂的状态，可导致越轨行为增多，尤其是在社会急剧变迁时期。
6. Sociological Research Methods | 社会学研究方法
Grasping methodological vocabulary is essential for evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of studies and for designing your own research. These terms frequently appear in methods-based exam questions.
掌握方法论词汇对于评价研究的优缺点以及设计你自己的研究必不可少。这些术语常出现在基于研究方法的试题中。
Primary data: Information collected first-hand by the researcher for a specific purpose, e.g. through questionnaires, interviews or experiments. It can be tailored to the research question but is often time-consuming to gather.
一手数据：研究者为特定目的亲自收集的信息，如通过问卷、访谈或实验。一手数据可针对研究问题量身定制，但收集通常耗时。
Secondary data: Existing information gathered by someone else for a different purpose, such as official statistics, historical documents or previous research. It saves time but may lack validity for the new study.
二手数据：他人为不同目的收集的既有信息，如官方统计数据、历史文献或过往研究。二手数据节省时间，但可能对新研究的效度不足。
Quantitative data: Numerical information that can be measured, counted and analysed statistically, e.g. percentages, tables and graphs. It allows large-scale comparisons but may ignore the meanings behind actions.
定量数据：可测量、计数并进行统计分析的数值信息，如百分比、表格和图表。定量数据可进行大规模比较，但可能忽略行为背后的意义。
Qualitative data: Non-numerical data that provides depth and detail, often in the form of words, observations or images, giving insight into people’s feelings, interpretations and experiences.
定性数据：提供深度和细节的非数值数据，通常以文字、观察或图像形式呈现，能洞察人们的感受、解释和经历。
Reliability: The consistency of a research method or instrument. If a study can be replicated under the same conditions and yield similar results, it is considered reliable.
信度：研究方法或工具的一致性。如果一项研究能在相同条件下重复开展并得出相似结果，则被视为具有信度。
Validity: The extent to which research findings genuinely reflect the social reality they claim to represent. High validity means the data captures the true picture rather than an artifact of the method.
效度：研究发现真实反映其所声称代表的社会现实的程度。高效度意味着数据捕捉了真实状况，而非研究手段造成的假象。
Representativeness: The degree to which the sample or findings mirror the characteristics of the wider population. A representative sample allows researchers to generalise with confidence.
代表性：样本或研究发现反映更广泛总体特征的程度。具有代表性的样本使研究者能够有信心地推广结论。
Sampling techniques: Examples include random sampling (every individual has an equal chance), stratified sampling (population divided into subgroups and sampled proportionally), snowball sampling (participants recruit others) and opportunity sampling (selecting those readily available).
抽样技术：例子包括随机抽样（每人被选中的机会均等）、分层抽样（将总体分成亚群并按比例抽样）、滚雪球抽样（由参与者招募他人）和便利抽样（选取容易接触到的人）。
Triangulation: The use of two or more research methods in a single study to cross-check findings and increase both validity and reliability. For example, combining questionnaires with in-depth interviews.
三角交叉验证：在单个研究中使用两种或多种研究方法，以交叉检验研究发现并提升效度和信度。例如，将问卷与深度访谈相结合。
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