📚 Year 13 CCEA Philosophy: Core Knowledge Review | A2 CCEA 哲学：核心知识点梳理
This revision guide provides a structured overview of the core knowledge required for Year 13 (A2) CCEA Philosophy, covering the two examined units: Ethics, and Philosophy of Mind with Religious Language. Each section presents essential arguments, key thinkers, and crucial distinctions in a clear bilingual format, designed to strengthen your understanding and prepare you for exam success.
本复习指南系统梳理了 Year 13（A2）CCEA 哲学的核心知识，涵盖两大考试单元：伦理学，以及心灵哲学与宗教语言。每个部分以清晰的双语形式呈现必备论证、关键思想家和重要区分，旨在加深理解，助力备考成功。
1. Meta‑ethics: Cognitivism vs Non‑cognitivism | 元伦理学：认知主义与非认知主义
Meta‑ethics asks whether moral judgements express beliefs that can be true or false (cognitivism) or non‑cognitive attitudes such as emotions or commands (non‑cognitivism). Key cognitivist theories include ethical naturalism and intuitionism; non‑cognitivist theories include emotivism and prescriptivism.
元伦理学追问：道德判断是表达可真可假的信念（认知主义），还是表达情感、指令等非认知态度（非认知主义）。主要认知主义理论包括伦理自然主义和直觉主义；非认知主义理论包括情感主义和规定主义。
Ethical naturalism claims that moral properties are natural properties, so moral terms can be defined using empirical facts. For example, ‘good’ means ‘maximises pleasure’. Intuitionism, defended by G.E. Moore, holds that ‘good’ is a simple, non‑natural property known through intuition.
伦理自然主义主张道德属性即自然属性，道德词语可用经验事实定义，如“善”就是“快乐最大化”。直觉主义（G.E. 摩尔捍卫）则认为“善”是一种单纯的非自然属性，凭直觉把握。
Emotivism, associated with A.J. Ayer, maintains that moral sentences merely express emotional reactions (‘Boo‑hooray’ theory). R.M. Hare’s prescriptivism argues that moral judgements entail universalisable commands that guide action. Both reject moral truth‑values.
情感主义（A.J. 艾耶尔）认为道德句子仅表达情感反应（“嘘‑万岁”理论）。R.M. 黑尔的规定主义主张道德判断蕴含可普遍化的行动指令。两者都否认道德判断具有真值。
2. Utilitarianism: Bentham and Mill | 功利主义：边沁与密尔
Utilitarianism is a consequentialist theory judging actions by the amount of pleasure or happiness they produce. Jeremy Bentham’s quantitative hedonism uses the felicific calculus to measure pain and pleasure along dimensions such as duration, intensity, and extent.
功利主义是一种后果论理论，以行动所产生的快乐或幸福总量来评判行为。边沁的量化快乐主义运用苦乐计算法，从持续时间、强度、范围等维度衡量苦乐。
John Stuart Mill developed qualitative utilitarianism, distinguishing higher intellectual pleasures from lower bodily pleasures. He famously stated, ‘It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied,’ emphasising the superior quality of mental pleasures.
约翰·斯图亚特·密尔提出质化功利主义，区分了高级的理智快乐与低级的身体快乐。他名言道：“宁做不满足的人，不做满足的猪”，强调精神快乐的优越品质。
Act utilitarianism applies the principle of utility directly to each individual act. Rule utilitarianism, by contrast, evaluates the utility of following a general rule. This distinction helps utilitarians respond to criticisms involving injustice towards minorities or promise‑breaking.
行为功利主义直接将功利原则应用于每个具体行为。规则功利主义则评估遵循普遍规则所产生的功利。这一区分有助于功利主义者回应涉及不公对待少数群体或违背承诺等批评。
Common objections include the problem of demandingness (always prioritising the greater good), the integration of justice and rights, and the practical difficulty of calculating consequences with certainty.
常见反驳包括要求过苛问题（总是优先追求更大善），正义与权利的整合难题，以及难以确切计算后果的实际困难。
3. Kantian Deontological Ethics | 康德义务论伦理学
Immanuel Kant’s ethics is duty‑based (deontological). The only thing good without qualification is a good will. An action has moral worth not because of its consequences but because it is done from duty, in accordance with the categorical imperative.
康德的伦理学以义务为基础（义务论）。唯一无条件的善就是善良意志。一个行为的道德价值不在于其后果，而在于出于义务并符合定言命令而行动。
The first formulation of the categorical imperative is the Formula of Universal Law: ‘Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.’ This tests whether a maxim can be consistently conceived or willed as universal law without contradiction.
定言命令的第一公式是普遍法则公式：“只依照那个你同时愿意它成为普遍法则的准则去行动。”该测试检验某项准则能否无矛盾地被构想或被意愿为普遍法则。
The second formulation, the Formula of Humanity, commands that we treat humanity, in ourselves and others, always as an end in itself and never merely as a means. This grounds the absolute respect for persons and underpins arguments against deception and exploitation.
第二公式，即人性质公式，要求永远把人性——无论在自己还是他人——当作目的本身，而绝不仅仅当作手段。这确立了对他人的绝对尊重，并支撑起反对欺骗和剥削的论证。
Critics argue that Kant’s system is too rigid, neglecting emotions and consequences. It can generate conflicting duties and cannot resolve dilemmas where two perfect duties clash. Yet its emphasis on universal reason and dignity remains deeply influential.
批评者认为康德体系过于僵化，忽略了情感与后果；可能产生相互矛盾的义务，无法解决两个完全义务相冲突的道德困境。但其对普遍理性和人之尊严的强调影响深远。
4. Aristotelian Virtue Ethics | 亚里士多德德性伦理学
Virtue ethics focuses on character and the development of virtues, rather than on duties or consequences. Aristotle’s ethical framework centres on eudaimonia (flourishing) as the final end of human life, achieved by living a life of reason in accordance with virtue.
德性伦理学关注品格与德性的培养，而非义务或后果。亚里士多德的伦理框架以 eudaimonia（繁荣/幸福）作为人生的终极目的，要通过合乎德性的理性生活来实现。
The doctrine of the mean states that each moral virtue lies between two corresponding vices: one of excess and one of deficiency. For example, courage is the mean between cowardice and rashness. Practical wisdom (phronesis) is needed to discern the mean in particular situations.
中道学说指出，每种道德德性都处于两个相应的恶之间：过度与不及。例如，勇敢是懦弱与鲁莽之间的中道。实践智慧（phronesis）是在具体情境中把握中道所必需的。
Virtue ethics provides a naturalistic and holistic view of morality, emphasising moral education and the cultivation of character over rule‑following. However, it faces the criticism of offering insufficient action‑guidance and allowing cultural relativity in determining what counts as a virtue.
德性伦理学提供了自然主义且整全的道德观，强调道德教育与品格养成，胜过遵循规则。但它面临批评，认为其行动指导不足，且在确定何为德性时易陷入文化相对主义。
5. Applied Ethics: Life and Death Issues | 应用伦理学：生命与死亡议题
CCEA A2 Ethics requires students to apply ethical theories to issues concerning the value of life, including abortion, euthanasia, and capital punishment. The sanctity of life principle contrasts with a quality‑of‑life approach.
CCEA A2 伦理学要求将伦理理论应用于生命价值相关议题，包括堕胎、安乐死和死刑。生命神圣原则与生命质量进路形成对照。
Utilitarians might permit abortion and voluntary euthanasia where suffering is reduced and preferences are satisfied. A Kantian, focusing on rational agency and the prohibition against treating persons merely as means, may afford strong protection to the foetus as a potential rational being, though debates arise over personhood.
功利主义者可能容许堕胎和自愿安乐死，因为可以减少痛苦、满足偏好。康德主义者关注理性主体，并禁止把人仅当作手段，可能为胎儿作为潜在理性存在提供强力保护，尽管人格问题引发诸多争论。
Aristotelian virtue ethics would consider what the compassionate, wise person would do, examining the circumstances, intentions, and the promotion of eudaimonia for all concerned. Capital punishment raises questions of retributive justice, deterrence, and the risk of executing the innocent, engaging all three theories.
亚里士多德德性伦理学会考量有同情心和智慧的人会如何做，审视情境、意图以及对所有相关者 eudaimonia 的促进。死刑引发报应正义、威慑效果及误杀无辜的风险等问题，牵涉所有三种理论。
6. Substance Dualism: Mind and Body | 实体二元论：心灵与身体
In Philosophy of Mind, substance dualism holds that mind and body are two distinct substances: the mental is non‑physical, indivisible, and indubitable; the physical is extended in space, divisible, and known through the senses. René Descartes is the classic proponent.
在心灵哲学中，实体二元论主张心灵与身体是两种不同的实体：精神是非物理的、不可分割且不可怀疑的；物理实体在空间中广延、可分割且通过感官认识。勒内·笛卡尔是经典倡导者。
Descartes’s conceivability argument claims that because I can clearly and distinctly conceive of myself existing without a body, mind and body must be distinct. The divisibility argument states that body is divisible while mind is indivisible, so they cannot be identical.
笛卡尔的可设想性论证主张：因为我能清楚分明地设想自己没有身体而存在，所以心灵与身体必定不同。可分性论证指出：身体可分割，而心灵不可分割，因此两者不能等同。
The main objection is the interaction problem: how can a non‑physical mind causally interact with a physical body? Princess Elisabeth of Bohemia pressed this challenge. Further difficulties come from the reliance on introspection and the causal closure of the physical world assumed by science.
主要反驳是互动难题：非物理的心灵如何与物理的身体因果互动？伊丽莎白公主曾提出这一挑战。进一步的困难源于对内省的依赖以及科学所假定的物理世界因果闭合。
7. Physicalist Theories: Behaviourism and Identity Theory | 物理主义理论：行为主义与同一论
Physicalism denies that the mind is a non‑physical substance. Philosophical behaviourism analyses mental states as dispositions to behave in certain ways. Carl Hempel argued that psychological statements can be translated without residue into bodily behaviour statements.
物理主义否认心灵是非物理实体。哲学行为主义将心理状态分析为以某种方式行为的倾向。卡尔·亨佩尔主张，心理陈述可以毫无剩余地翻译为身体行为陈述。
Behaviourism avoids the interaction problem, but it struggles to account for mental causation and the qualitative ‘feel’ of experience. The perfect‑pretender objection shows that behaviourism cannot distinguish genuine mental states from mere simulated behaviour.
行为主义避免了互动难题，但难以解释心理因果作用和体验的“感受质”。完美伪装者反驳表明，行为主义无法区分真实的心理状态与单纯的模拟行为。
The mind‑brain identity theory claims that mental states are identical to brain processes. Type identity theory asserts that each type of mental state is identical to a type of brain state, while token identity holds that each particular mental event is identical to a particular physical event, allowing multiple realizability.
心脑同一论主张心理状态等同于大脑过程。类型同一论断言每种心理状态类型等同于一种脑状态类型；个例同一论则主张每个具体的心理事件等同于某个具体物理事件，从而允许多重可实现性。
Objections include multiple realizability (the same mental state can be realized in different physical substrates) and the hard problem of consciousness: even if we identify neural correlates, why these are accompanied by subjective experience remains mysterious.
反驳包括多重可实现性（同一心理状态可在不同物理基质中实现）以及意识的困难问题：即便我们找到了神经关联物，为何这些过程伴随着主观体验仍然是个谜。
8. Functionalism and Eliminative Materialism | 功能主义与取消唯物主义
Functionalism defines mental states by their causal roles – what they are caused by, and what behaviour they cause. This is analogous to how a carburettor is defined by its function, not its physical composition. It allows mental states to be realized in different physical systems.
功能主义根据因果角色来定义心理状态——即它们由什么引起，又引起什么行为。这类似于用功能而非物理构成来定义化油器。它允许心理状态在不同物理系统中实现。
A major objection to functionalism is the inverted spectrum and the absent qualia problem: it seems possible for two individuals to be functionally identical yet have inverted colour experiences, or for a system to be functionally equivalent but lack consciousness entirely (the ‘Chinese room’ argument).
功能主义的主要反驳是颠倒光谱和感受质缺失问题：似乎可能存在两个功能相同但颜色体验颠倒的个体，或一个功能等效但完全缺乏意识的系统（“中文屋”论证）。
Eliminative materialism goes further, claiming that folk psychology (our ordinary mental vocabulary of beliefs, desires, etc.) is a radically false theory that will be replaced by neuroscience. According to Paul Churchland, mental states simply do not exist; we will eliminate them as we eliminated phlogiston. This is hotly contested because it denies the reality of conscious experience itself.
取消唯物主义更进一步，主张民间心理学（我们日常使用的信念、欲望等心理词汇）是一套从根本上错误的理论，将被神经科学取代。据保罗·丘奇兰德，心理状态根本不存在；我们会像淘汰燃素那样淘汰它们。这引发了激烈争议，因为它否定了意识体验本身的实在性。
9. The Logical Positivist Challenge: Verification and Falsification | 逻辑实证主义挑战：验证与证伪
In Religious Language, the logical positivists’ verification principle claims that a statement is meaningful only if it is analytically true or empirically verifiable. A.J. Ayer applied this to religious claims, concluding they are literally meaningless because they cannot be verified in experience.
在宗教语言部分，逻辑实证主义者的验证原则主张，一个陈述唯有在分析为真或可被经验验证时才有意义。A.J. 艾耶尔将此应用于宗教主张，结论是它们因无法被经验验证而在字面上无意义。
Critics point out that the verification principle itself is not verifiable. Moreover, John Hick’s eschatological verification proposes that religious claims will be verified after death, partially mitigating the challenge. Karl Popper proposed falsification as a demarcation criterion, arguing that genuine claims must be falsifiable, but religious believers often resist falsification by modifying their beliefs.
批评者指出验证原则本身无法验证。此外，约翰·希克的末世验证提出，宗教主张会在死后得到验证，部分缓解了这一挑战。卡尔·波普尔提出证伪作为划界标准，主张真正的命题必须可证伪，但宗教信徒往往通过修正信念来逃避证伪。
10. Analogy, Metaphor and Language Games | 类比、隐喻与语言游戏
To account for the meaningfulness of religious language without reducing it to literal description, Aquinas developed the theory of analogy. When we say ‘God is good’, we use analogical predication, not univocal (same meaning) nor equivocal (completely different meaning). Analogy of attribution and analogy of proportionality retain a relation of meaning rooted in God as cause.
为了在不将宗教语言降格为字面描述的前提下说明其有意义，阿奎那发展了类比理论。当我们说“上帝是善的”时，我们使用的是类比谓述，既非单义的（相同意义），也非歧义的（完全不同意义）。归因类比和比例类比保留了根植于上帝作为原因的意义关系。
Other approaches see religious language as metaphorical, inviting the hearer into a new way of seeing, or as symbolic, participating in the reality it signifies. Paul Tillich claimed that religious language functions as a symbol that opens up levels of reality otherwise hidden.
其他进路将宗教语言视为隐喻，邀请听者进入新的观看方式，或视为象征，参与其所指涉的实在。保罗·蒂里希主张，宗教语言作为象征，敞开日常条件下隐藏的实在层面。
Ludwig Wittgenstein’s later philosophy introduced the notion of language games. Religious language, like any language game, is meaningful within the form of life and rules shared by the believing community. The meaning lies in its use, not in its correspondence to facts. This protects religion from external criteria but risks relativism and a retreat into fideism.
维特根斯坦后期哲学引入语言游戏概念。宗教语言如同任何语言游戏，在信仰共同体所共享的生活形式和规则之内具有意义。其意义在于使用，而非与事实的对应。这把宗教保护于外部标准之外，但有陷入相对主义和信仰主义的风险。
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