📚 A-Level Edexcel Politics: Glossary and Key Terms Quick Revision Guide | A-Level Edexcel 政治：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering political terminology is essential for top marks in A-Level Edexcel Politics. This revision guide breaks down key concepts, institutions and theories into bite-sized, bilingual definitions, making it easier to memorise and apply them in essays and source questions.
掌握政治术语是 A-Level Edexcel 政治考试取得高分的关键。本速记指南将核心概念、制度与理论拆解为简短的中英双语定义，帮助你在论文和资料来源题中灵活运用、高效记忆。
1. Core Concepts & Political Ideologies | 核心概念与政治思想
Politics starts with foundational ideas about power, authority and legitimacy, and extends to the major ideologies that shape policy debates.
政治学从权力、权威和合法性等基础观念开始，并延伸到塑造政策辩论的主要意识形态。
Power: The capacity to make others act in a way they would not otherwise choose, exercised through force, persuasion or institutional position.
权力: 使他人以非自愿方式行事的能力，可通过强制、说服或制度地位来施加。
Authority: The right to exercise power, recognised as legitimate by those over whom it is held; often derived from law, tradition or charisma.
权威: 行使权力的正当权利，被统治对象承认其为合法；常源于法律、传统或个人魅力。
Legitimacy: The widespread acceptance that a government or institution has the right to govern; essential for stability.
合法性: 民众普遍接受某个政府或体制拥有治理权的信念；是政治稳定的基础。
Sovereignty: Supreme, unchallengeable authority within a territory; in the UK, legal sovereignty lies with Parliament (‘parliamentary sovereignty’).
主权: 在一国领土内最高且不可挑战的权力；在英国，法律主权属于议会（即“议会主权”）。
Ideology: A coherent set of ideas and values that offers a view of how society should be organised; examples include liberalism, conservatism and socialism.
意识形态: 一组连贯的理念与价值观，为社会应如何组织提供蓝图；例如自由主义、保守主义与社会主义。
2. Democracy and Participation | 民主与参与
Democracy means rule by the people. This section covers the types of democracy and the ways citizens participate beyond simply voting.
民主意味着人民统治。本节介绍民主制度的类型以及公民在投票之外的参与方式。
Direct democracy: A system in which citizens make policy decisions themselves, without representatives – for example, through referendums.
直接民主: 公民不经过代表而直接作出政策决定的制度，例如通过全民公投。
Representative democracy: Citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf; the UK operates mainly as a representative democracy.
代议制民主: 公民选举代表代为决策的制度；英国主要实行代议制民主。
Referendum: A popular vote on a single political question; used in the UK for issues such as EU membership (2016) or Scottish independence (2014).
全民公投: 就单个政治议题进行的民众投票；英国曾在欧盟成员身份（2016年）和苏格兰独立（2014年）等问题上使用。
Pressure group: An organised body that seeks to influence government policy without seeking office; can be insider (close ties to government) or outsider (protests, media campaigns).
压力集团: 试图影响政府政策但不寻求执政的组织；可分为内部人集团（与政府关系密切）和外部人集团（通过抗议、媒体宣传施压）。
Political participation: Activities by citizens aimed at influencing politics, including voting, joining a party, protesting, digital activism and jury service.
政治参与: 公民为影响政治而进行的活动，包括投票、加入政党、抗议、网络行动和担任陪审员。
3. Elections and Electoral Systems | 选举与选举制度
Electoral systems translate votes into seats. Knowing how different systems work is central to the Edexcel specification, especially for the UK and its devolved bodies.
选举制度将选票转化为席位。理解不同制度的运作方式是 Edexcel 考纲的核心内容，尤其涉及英国及其权力下放机构。
First Past the Post (FPTP): The voter marks one candidate; the candidate with the most votes wins the seat. Used for UK Westminster elections. Tends to produce single-party majority governments.
简单多数制 (FPTP): 选民投选一名候选人，得票最多者赢得席位。用于英国下议院选举。倾向产生一党多数政府。
Proportional Representation (PR): A general term for systems that allocate seats roughly in proportion to votes cast. More likely to produce coalition governments.
比例代表制 (PR): 泛指按得票比例大致分配席位的制度。更容易产生联合政府。
Additional Member System (AMS): A hybrid system combining FPTP constituency MPs with regional party lists to add proportionality. Used for the Scottish Parliament and Welsh Senedd.
附加成员制 (AMS): 混合制度，结合了 FPTP 选区议员和地区政党名单，以增加比例性。用于苏格兰议会和威尔士议会。
Single Transferable Vote (STV): Voters rank candidates in multi-member constituencies; candidates are elected by reaching a quota. Used in Northern Ireland Assembly elections.
单一可转让投票制 (STV): 在复数选区中，选民为候选人排序；达到当选票额的候选人胜出。用于北爱尔兰议会选举。
Supplementary Vote (SV): Voters choose a first and second preference; if no candidate wins over 50%, all but the top two are eliminated and second preferences distributed. Used for UK police and crime commissioners and some mayors.
补充投票制 (SV): 选民标记第一和第二选择；若无人获得过半票数，仅保留前两名并分配第二选择票。用于英格兰警察与犯罪事务专员及部分市长选举。
4. Political Parties and Party Systems | 政党与政党体系
Parties recruit candidates, formulate policy and provide government. The structure of the party system shapes how democracies function.
政党招募候选人、制定政策并组成政府。政党体系的结构决定了民主制度的运作方式。
Political party: An organised group with shared political values that seeks to win office in order to implement its policies.
政党: 拥有共同政治价值观的有组织团体，力图赢得公职以推行其政策。
Two-party system: A system dominated by two major parties that regularly alternate in power; the UK has historically been described as two-party, though today it is more of a two‑and‑a‑half party system.
两党制: 由两个主要政党轮流执政的制度；英国历史上被称为两党制，尽管如今更接近“两个半党体制”。
Party whip: An official responsible for ensuring party discipline; MPs are instructed how to vote (‘three‑line whip’ is the strongest). Defying the whip may result in losing the party label.
党鞭: 负责维持党纪的官员；向议员发出投票指令（“三线党鞭”为最强指令）。违抗党鞭可能导致被收回党籍。
Mandate: The authority granted by the electorate to the winning party to carry out its manifesto promises.
授权: 选民赋予获胜政党执行其竞選纲领的权威。
Minority government: A government that does not command an overall majority in the House of Commons; it must seek support from other parties to pass legislation.
少数政府: 未能在下议院掌握过半议席的政府；必须寻求其他政党的支持才能通过法案。
5. Voting Behaviour and the Media | 投票行为与媒体
Explaining how and why people vote as they do involves examining long-term factors such as class and region, alongside short-term influences like media coverage and party leadership.
解释人们为何以及如何投票，需要研究阶级、地域等长期因素，以及媒体报道、政党领导力等短期影响。
Class dealignment: The weakening of the link between social class and voting behaviour; fewer working‑class voters automatically vote Labour, and fewer middle‑class voters automatically vote Conservative.
阶级脱钩: 社会阶层与投票行为之间联系的弱化；如今自动投票给工党的工人阶级选民和自动投票给保守党的中产阶级选民都减少了。
Partisan dealignment: The decline in strong, long‑term attachment to one political party; more voters see themselves as ‘floating voters’.
政党认同脱钩: 对某一政党长期、牢固的情感受弱化；更多选民将自己视为“摇摆选民”。
Valence issue: An issue on which there is broad agreement about the goal (e.g., a strong economy), with parties competing on their perceived competence to deliver it.
共效议题: 目标得到广泛共识的议题（如强劲经济），各方竞争谁能更有效地实现它。
Dominant ideology model: Suggests the media reflects the views of the ruling elite, shaping public opinion in favour of the status quo.
主导意识形态模型: 认为媒体反映统治精英的观点，塑造出有利于现有体制的舆论。
Opinion polls: Surveys of a sample of the population used to predict election outcomes; they can influence tactical voting and media narratives.
民意调查: 对人口样本进行的调查，用于预测选举结果；它们可能影响策略性投票和媒体叙事。
6. The UK Constitution | 英国宪法
The UK constitution is unusual: it is uncodified, drawn from several sources, and has evolved over centuries. Key debates focus on whether it should be reformed or codified.
英国宪法别具一格：它是不成文的，来源于多种渊源，并历经数世纪演变。核心争论在于是否应该改革或将其成文化。
Uncodified constitution: A constitution not contained in a single written document; the UK’s framework is found in statutes, conventions, common law and authoritative works.
不成文宪法: 非包含在单一成文文件中的宪法；英国的宪制框架存在于成文法、惯例、普通法和权威著作之中。
Parliamentary sovereignty: The doctrine that Parliament is the supreme legal authority in the UK, able to make or unmake any law; no Parliament can bind its successors.
议会主权: 议会是英国最高法律权威之原则，可以制定或废除任何法律；任何一届议会均对后来的议会不能构成约束。
Rule of law: The principle that everyone, including the government, is subject to the law; law should be clear and applied fairly.
法治: 包括政府在内的任何人都须服从法律的原则；法律应清晰并公平执行。
Constitutional convention: A non‑legal rule that is nevertheless binding in practice; e.g., the monarch always assents to bills passed by Parliament.
宪法惯例: 非法律规则，但在实践中具有约束力；例如，君主总是御准议会通过的法案。
Devolution: The transfer of certain legislative and executive powers from central government to regional bodies, while sovereignty remains at Westminster.
权力下放: 将部分立法和行政权力从中央政府转移至地区机构，但主权仍保留在威斯敏斯特。
7. Parliament | 议会
The UK legislature is bicameral, consisting of the House of Commons and the House of Lords. Its main functions are scrutiny, representation, legislation and legitimisation.
英国立法机关实行两院制，由下议院和上议院组成。其主要职能是审查、代表、立法和赋予合法性。
House of Commons: The elected chamber of Parliament; it holds the most legislative power and is the arena where the government must maintain the confidence of the house.
下议院: 议会中经民选产生的议院；掌握最主要的立法权，政府必须在此维持下议院的信任。
House of Lords: The appointed chamber that revises legislation and acts as a check on the Commons; it cannot permanently block bills, only delay them under the Parliament Acts.
上议院: 由任命产生的议院，负责修订立法并对下议院进行制约；根据《议会法令》，它只能延迟而不能永久阻挠法案。
Royal Assent: The formal approval of the monarch by which a bill becomes an Act of Parliament; a convention, never refused in modern times.
皇家御准: 君主的形式批准，使法案成为议会法令；是一项惯例，现代从未被拒绝。
Select committee: A cross‑party group of MPs or peers that scrutinises specific government departments and policy areas; their reports are influential but advisory.
特别委员会: 由跨党派议员组成的团体，对特定政府部门和政策领域进行审查；其报告具有影响力但仅为建议性质。
Backbench MP: An MP who does not hold a ministerial or shadow ministerial role; they represent constituency interests and may rebel against party lines.
后座议员: 不担任部长或影子部长职务的议员；他们代表选区利益，并可能违反政党路线投票。
8. The Prime Minister and Cabinet | 首相与内阁
The executive branch consists of the Prime Minister, Cabinet and the wider government. Power within the core executive can be viewed through models of prime ministerial or cabinet government.
行政机关由首相、内阁和更广泛的政府组成。核心行政权力可以通过首相政府模型或内阁政府模型来理解。
Prime Minister: The head of government, usually the leader of the largest party in the Commons; key powers include patronage, chairing Cabinet and representing the UK abroad.
首相: 政府首脑，通常为下议院最大党的领袖；主要权力包括人事任命、主持内阁和在国际上代表英国。
Cabinet: A group of senior ministers appointed by the Prime Minister to head major departments; collective responsibility binds them to publicly support all Cabinet decisions.
内阁: 由首相任命的高级大臣组成的团体，各自领导主要部门；集体负责制要求他们须公开支持所有内阁决定。
Collective responsibility: The convention that ministers stand by Cabinet decisions or resign; ensures government speaks with one voice.
集体负责制: 大臣须支持内阁决定，否则辞职的惯例；确保政府对外发言一致。
Individual ministerial responsibility: The convention that ministers bear ultimate responsibility for the actions of their department; serious failures may lead to resignation.
个人大臣负责制: 大臣为其部门行为承担最终责任的惯例；严重失职可能导致辞职。
Special adviser (SpAd): A temporary civil servant appointed personally by a minister to provide political advice, distinct from the politically neutral civil service.
特别顾问: 由大臣亲自任命的临时公务员，提供政治建议，与保持政治中立的文官系统不同。
9. The Judiciary and Rights | 司法与权利
An independent judiciary upholds the rule of law and protects citizens’ rights. The Human Rights Act and the Supreme Court play crucial roles in the post-devolution constitution.
独立的司法机关维护法治并保障公民权利。《人权法案》与最高法院在权力下放后的宪制中扮演关键角色。
Judicial independence: The principle that judges should be free from political interference; secured by security of tenure, guaranteed salaries and an independent appointments process.
司法独立: 法官应免受政治干预的原则；通过任期保障、固定薪俸和独立的任命程序予以确保。
Judicial review: A process by which courts examine the legality of decisions made by public bodies; a declaration of ‘ultra vires’ quashes a decision beyond legal power.
司法复核: 法院审查公共机构决定合法性的程序；宣告“越权”可使超出法律权限的决定失效。
Human Rights Act 1998: Incorporated the European Convention on Human Rights into UK law, allowing citizens to raise Convention rights in domestic courts.
《1998年人权法案》: 将《欧洲人权公约》纳入英国国内法，使公民可在本国法院主张公约所载权利。
Supreme Court: Established in 2009, it is the final court of appeal for all UK civil cases and most criminal cases; it also clarifies constitutional questions.
最高法院: 成立于2009年，是英国所有民事案件及大部分刑事案件的终审法院；也负责厘清宪法性问题。
Right to privacy vs. security: A recurring tension in rights-based debates; anti‑terrorism legislation often tests the boundary between individual liberty and collective safety.
隐私权与安全: 权利辩论中反复出现的张力；反恐立法经常检验个人自由与集体安全之间的边界。
10. Global Politics and International Relations | 全球政治与国际关系
Global politics examines how states and non‑state actors interact. Edexcel topics include theories of global order, global governance and regionalism.
全球政治研究国家与非国家行为体如何互动。Edexcel 考纲涵盖全球秩序理论、全球治理与区域主义。
State sovereignty in global politics: The principle that a state has authority over its own affairs; increasingly challenged by globalisation and humanitarian intervention.
全球政治中的国家主权: 一国对其自身事务拥有权威的原则；日益受到全球化与人道主义干预的挑战。
Hard power: The use of military or economic means to influence the behaviour of others; often contrasted with soft power.
硬实力: 运用军事或经济手段影响他者行为的方式；常与软实力相对。
Soft power: The ability to shape preferences of others through attraction and co-option rather than coercion, relying on culture, values and policies.
软实力: 通过吸引与合作而非强制来塑造他方偏好的能力，依赖文化、价值观和政策。
Global governance: The cooperation of states, international organisations and non‑state actors to address issues that transcend national borders, such as climate change and trade.
全球治理: 国家、国际组织与非国家行为体为应对气候变化、贸易等跨国议题而开展的合作。
United Nations (UN): A global body founded in 1945 to maintain peace and security; its key organs include the Security Council and the General Assembly.
联合国: 成立于1945年以维护和平与安全的全球性组织；主要机构包括安全理事会和大会。
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization): A military alliance based on collective defence (Article 5); it links security of North America and Europe.
北约（北大西洋公约组织）: 基于集体防御（第五条）的军事同盟；联结北美与欧洲的安全。
Security dilemma: A situation in which actions taken by a state to increase its own security cause insecurity in others, leading to an arms race.
安全困境: 一国为增进自身安全采取行动，却导致他国感到不安全，从而引发军备竞赛的局面。
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