📚 A-Level OCR Philosophy: Quick Glossary Guide | A-Level OCR 哲学：词汇术语速记指南
A strong command of philosophical vocabulary is essential for tackling OCR A-Level Philosophy exam questions with precision and confidence. This guide provides clear, concise definitions of key terms across all major topics — from epistemology and ethics to philosophy of religion and mind — paired with straightforward Chinese translations. Use it for quick revision, active recall, and essay planning to ensure you never lose marks for unclear terminology.
牢固掌握哲学词汇是精准、自信地应对 OCR A-Level 哲学考试的关键。这份指南涵盖了从认识论、伦理学到宗教哲学与心灵哲学等所有重要主题的核心术语，提供清晰简明的定义，并配有准确的中文翻译。你可以用它来快速复习、主动回忆和构思论文，确保不会因术语含糊而失分。
1. Epistemology: Key Terms | 认识论核心术语
A priori: Knowledge that is gained independently of sense experience, such as mathematical truths (e.g., 2 + 3 = 5).
先验：不依赖于感官经验而获得的知识，例如数学真理（如 2 + 3 = 5）。
A posteriori: Knowledge that depends on sense experience or empirical evidence, like ‘The cat is on the mat’.
后验：依赖于感官经验或经验证据的知识，例如“猫在垫子上”。
Analytic proposition: A statement that is true or false solely in virtue of the meanings of the words; the predicate is contained within the subject (e.g., ‘All bachelors are unmarried’).
分析命题：仅凭词语含义即可判断真假的陈述；谓语包含在主语之中（如“所有单身汉都是未婚的”）。
Synthetic proposition: A statement whose truth value depends on how the world is, not just on linguistic meaning; the predicate adds new information (e.g., ‘The cat is black’).
综合命题：其真值取决于世界实际状况，而不仅仅依赖语言意义的陈述；谓语增添了新信息（如“那只猫是黑色的”）。
Justified true belief (JTB): The traditional definition of knowledge: a person knows that P if and only if P is true, the person believes that P, and the person has justification for believing that P. Challenged by Gettier cases.
得到辩护的真信念（JTB）：传统的知识定义：一个人知道 P，当且仅当 P 为真、此人相信 P，并且此人有理由相信 P。该定义受到盖梯尔案例的挑战。
Gettier case: A scenario where a person has a justified true belief but intuitively does not have knowledge because the justification is based on a lucky coincidence.
盖梯尔案例：一种情境，其中某人拥有得到辩护的真信念，但直觉上并不拥有知识，因为该辩护建立在巧合之上。
2. Metaphysics: Substance and Reality | 形而上学：实体与实在
Substance dualism: The view, associated with Descartes, that mind and body are two fundamentally distinct substances — mental substance (thinking, non-extended) and physical substance (extended, non-thinking).
实体二元论：与笛卡尔相关的观点，认为心灵与身体是两种根本不同的实体——心灵实体（思维、非广延）和物理实体（广延、非思维）。
Materialism (physicalism): The theory that everything that exists is fundamentally physical; mental states are reducible to or supervene on physical states.
唯物主义（物理主义）：认为一切存在物根本上都是物理的；心理状态可还原为或随附于物理状态的理论。
Idealism: The metaphysical position that reality is ultimately mental or mind-dependent. Berkeley’s idealism holds that physical objects are nothing but collections of ideas in minds.
唯心主义：一种形而上学立场，认为实在归根结底是精神的或依赖于心灵的。贝克莱的唯心主义认为物理对象无非是心灵中观念的集合。
Monism: The view that there is only one fundamental kind of substance or reality. Contrast with dualism and pluralism.
一元论：认为只有一种根本的实体或实在的观点。与二元论和多元论相对。
Occam’s razor: The principle of parsimony: entities should not be multiplied beyond necessity. Favours simpler explanations with fewer assumptions.
奥卡姆剃刀：简洁性原则：如无必要，勿增实体。倾向于假设更少的简单解释。
3. Philosophy of Mind | 心灵哲学
Qualia: The intrinsic, subjective ‘what-it-is-like’ qualities of conscious experience, such as the redness of red or the painfulness of pain.
感质（感受性）：意识经验中内在的、主观的“像什么样”的性质，例如红色的红感或疼痛的痛感。
Intentionality: The ‘aboutness’ of mental states — the capacity of thoughts to be directed at or represent objects, properties, or states of affairs beyond themselves.
意向性：心理状态的“关于性”——思想能够指向或表征外在对象、属性或事态的能力。
Property dualism: The position that, while there is only one substance (physical), mental properties are non-physical and irreducible to physical properties. Often supported by the ‘knowledge argument’.
属性二元论：一种立场，认为尽管只有一种实体（物理的），但心理属性是非物理的，不可还原为物理属性。常以“知识论证”支持。
Epiphenomenalism: The theory that mental states are caused by physical states but have no causal influence themselves; consciousness is a by-product with no power over action.
副现象论：一种理论，认为心理状态由物理状态引起，但自身没有任何因果效力；意识是无力的副产品。
Mind-brain identity theory: The claim that mental states are numerically identical to brain states; a type of reductive physicalism.
心脑同一论：主张心理状态与大脑状态在数值上同一；一种还原物理主义。
4. Ethics: Normative Theories | 伦理学：规范理论
Utilitarianism: A consequentialist theory: an action is right if it maximises overall utility (happiness or pleasure) for the greatest number. Classic proponents: Bentham (hedonic calculus) and Mill (higher/lower pleasures).
功利主义：一种后果论理论：若一项行动能为最大多数人带来最大总体功利（幸福或快乐），则该行动是正确的。代表人物：边沁（快乐计算法）和密尔（高级/低级快乐）。
Deontology: Duty-based ethics, most famously Kant’s ethics. Actions are right or wrong in themselves, irrespective of consequences, based on principles like the categorical imperative.
义务论：以义务为基础的伦理学，最著名的是康德伦理学。行动本身对错与否不取决于后果，而是基于如定言命令等原则。
Virtue ethics: Agent-centred ethics inspired by Aristotle. Focuses on the development of moral character (virtues) and the question ‘What sort of person should I be?’ rather than ‘What should I do?’
德性伦理学：以行动者为中心的伦理学，源于亚里士多德。关注道德品格（德性）的养成，核心问题不是“我该做什么？”而是“我应成为什么样的人？”。
Situation ethics: Developed by Joseph Fletcher; one absolute rule — agape love — and each situation is judged relative to that rule. Pragmatic, relativistic, and personalist.
境遇伦理学：由约瑟夫·弗莱彻发展；只有一条绝对规则——圣爱（agape），每个境遇都依据该规则判断。具有实用、相对和个人主义色彩。
Natural moral law: A deontological, absolutist theory (Aquinas) based on reason and the view that humans have a God-given purpose (telos); primary precepts guide behaviour toward the good.
自然道德律：一种义务论、绝对主义的理论（阿奎那），基于理性和人类拥有神赐目的（telos）的观点；基本诫命指引行为走向善。
5. Meta-ethics | 元伦理学
Cognitivism: The view that ethical statements express beliefs that are capable of being true or false. For example, ‘Murder is wrong’ is a factual claim.
认知主义：认为伦理陈述表达了可以被判断为真或假的信念。例如，“谋杀是错的”是一个事实性断言。
Non-cognitivism: The view that ethical statements do not express truth-apt beliefs but rather express emotions, prescriptions, or attitudes. Emotivism (Ayer) and prescriptivism (Hare) are examples.
非认知主义：认为伦理陈述并非表达具有真值的信念，而是表达情感、规定或态度。情绪主义（艾耶尔）和规约主义（黑尔）即属此类。
Ethical naturalism: A cognitivist position that moral properties are identical to or reducible to natural properties (e.g., pleasure, evolutionarily advantageous traits).
伦理自然主义：一种认知主义立场，认为道德属性同一于或可还原为自然属性（例如快乐、进化优势特征）。
Intuitionism: The meta-ethical view, associated with G.E. Moore, that we have a non-empirical rational faculty (‘intuition’) that grasps moral truths, which are non-natural and simple.
直觉主义：与摩尔相关的元伦理学观点，认为我们拥有一种非经验的理性官能（“直觉”），能把握非自然的、简单的道德真理。
Open question argument: Moore’s argument against ethical naturalism: for any proposed natural definition of ‘good’, it always makes sense to ask ‘But is it good?’ — suggesting ‘good’ is indefinable.
开放问题论证：摩尔反对伦理自然主义的论证：对任何关于“善”的自然主义定义，我们总可以合理地问“但它是善的吗？”——这表明“善”是不可定义的。
6. Arguments for the Existence of God | 上帝存在的论证
Ontological argument: An a priori argument that claims God’s existence is logically necessary. Anselm defines God as ‘that than which nothing greater can be conceived’ and argues such a being must exist in reality, not just in the mind.
本体论论证：一种先验论证，声称上帝的存在在逻辑上是必然的。安瑟伦将上帝定义为“无法设想有比之更伟大的存在”，并论证这样的存在必须在现实中而不仅在心灵中存在。
Cosmological argument: An a posteriori argument that infers God’s existence from the existence of the cosmos. Aquinas’ ‘Five Ways’ argue for a first mover, first cause, and necessary being.
宇宙论论证：一种后验论证，从宇宙的存在推出上帝存在。阿奎那的“五路论证”主张存在第一推动者、第一因和必然存在者。
Teleological (design) argument: An a posteriori argument from apparent design in the world (e.g., complexity, regularity, fine-tuning) to a divine designer. Paley’s watchmaker analogy is classic.
目的论（设计）论证：一种后验论证，从世界中显见的设计（如复杂性、规律性、微调）推出有一位神圣设计者。佩利的钟表匠类比即为典型。
Problem of evil: The apparent inconsistency between the existence of an omnipotent, omnibenevolent God and the existence of evil and suffering. The logical problem (Mackie) claims contradiction; the evidential problem argues the amount of evil makes God unlikely.
恶的问题：全能、全善的上帝存在与恶和苦难存在之间的明显矛盾。逻辑问题（麦凯）声称这是矛盾的；证据问题则认为恶的数量使上帝的存在不太可能。
Theodicy: An attempt to justify God’s goodness in the face of evil. Key theodicies: Augustinian (evil as privation, free will defence) and Irenaean (soul-making).
神正论：在恶的存在面前为上帝的善辩护的尝试。关键神正论：奥古斯丁式（恶作为善的缺失，自由意志辩护）和爱任纽式（灵魂塑造）。
7. Religious Language | 宗教语言
Verification principle: The logical positivist claim that a statement is meaningful only if it is analytic or empirically verifiable. Religious language, argued Ayer, fails this test and is therefore cognitively meaningless.
可证实原则：逻辑实证主义的主张，一个陈述只有在是分析的或在经验上可证实的情况下才有意义。艾耶尔论证，宗教语言通不过这一检验，因此在认知上是无意义的。
Falsification principle: Flew’s challenge: a statement is meaningful only if the speaker accepts that there are conceivable conditions that would show it to be false. Religious claims, Flew argued, die a ‘death by a thousand qualifications’.
可证伪原则：弗卢的挑战：一个陈述只有在说话者承认有可以证明其为假的可设想条件时才有意义。弗卢论证，宗教主张会因“千般限定而死”。
Analogy (Aquinas): Aquinas argued religious language is meaningful through analogy: we speak of God using terms drawn from creation, not univocally or equivocally, but analogically (e.g., God’s goodness is like human goodness but infinitely greater).
类比（阿奎那）：阿奎那论证宗教语言通过类比而有意义：我们用取自受造物的词语谈论上帝，既非单义也非歧义，而是类比（如上帝的善好比人的善，但无限更大）。
Symbolic language (Tillich): Paul Tillich argued religious language is symbolic: it ‘participates in’ the reality of the Ultimate Concern it points to, opening up deeper levels of reality and the human soul.
象征语言（蒂利希）：保罗·蒂利希论证宗教语言是象征性的：它“参与”其所指向的终极关切的实在，开启了现实和人类灵魂的更深处。
Wittgenstein’s language games: Religious language is meaningful within its own ‘form of life’ and operates according to its own rules, just like a game. It should not be judged by the standards of science.
维特根斯坦的语言游戏：宗教语言在其自身的“生活形式”内是有意义的，并按其自身规则运作，就像游戏一样。不应以科学标准来判断它。
8. Philosophy of Religion: Faith and Reason | 宗教哲学：信仰与理性
Fideism: The view that religious belief is based on faith rather than reason or evidence. Kierkegaard’s ‘leap of faith’ exemplifies the idea that genuine faith requires going beyond what reason can justify.
信仰主义：认为宗教信仰基于信仰而非理性或证据。克尔凯郭尔的“信仰之跃”例证了真正的信仰需要超越理性所能辩护的范围。
Evidentialism: The position that religious beliefs should be held only if they are supported by sufficient evidence. Often associated with the ethics of belief (Clifford) and challenges to fideism.
证据主义：一种立场，认为只有在有充分证据支持时才应持有宗教信仰。常与信念的伦理（克利福德）和对信仰主义的挑战相关。
Pascal’s wager: A pragmatic argument: if you believe in God and God exists, you gain infinite reward; if God does not exist, you lose little. Therefore, it is rational to believe. Criticised for many-gods problem and insincerity of belief.
帕斯卡的赌注：一种实用论证：如果你相信上帝且上帝存在，你获无限奖赏；如果上帝不存在，你损失甚微。因此，信仰是理性的。因多神问题和信仰不真诚而受批评。
Reformed epistemology: Plantinga’s view that belief in God can be rational and properly basic — not requiring evidence or argument — just as belief in other minds or the external world is basic.
改革宗认识论：普兰丁格的观点，认为对上帝的信仰可以是理性的且恰当地基本的——无需证据或论证——正如相信他心或外部世界是基本的一样。
Blik (Hare): A fundamental, unfalsifiable interpretation of the world that affects how one sees everything. Hare argued religious beliefs are bliks, not hypotheses, and therefore not subject to empirical verification or falsification.
世界观滤镜（黑尔）：一种基本的、不可证伪的对世界的解释，影响人看待一切的方式。黑尔论证宗教信仰是 bliks，而非假设，因此不受经验证实或证伪的限制。
9. Ancient Philosophy: Plato & Aristotle | 古代哲学：柏拉图与亚里士多德
Plato’s Theory of Forms: The view that ultimate reality consists of abstract, perfect, unchanging Forms (e.g., the Form of the Good) which are more real than the imperfect, changing objects of the sensible world.
柏拉图的理型论：认为终极实在由抽象、完美、不变的理型（如善的理型）组成，它们比可感世界中不完美、变化的事物更为真实。
Analogy of the Cave: Plato’s allegory in which prisoners mistake shadows for reality; the philosopher escapes, sees the sun (Form of the Good), and returns to enlighten others. Illustrates the journey from opinion to knowledge.
洞穴比喻：柏拉图的寓言，囚徒误将影子当作实在；哲学家逃出洞穴，看到太阳（善的理型），并返回启迪他人。阐释了从意见到知识的历程。
Aristotle’s Four Causes: Material cause (what something is made of), formal cause (its essence/form), efficient cause (agent that brings it about), and final cause (its purpose/telos). Understanding requires all four.
亚里士多德的四因说：质料因（事物由什么构成）、形式因（本质/形式）、动力因（使之产生的推动者）和目的因（目的/telos）。理解事物需全部四因。
Prime Mover: Aristotle’s concept of God: pure actuality, without potentiality, the ultimate final cause that moves everything by being the object of desire and thought, while itself remaining unmoved.
不动的推动者：亚里士多德的上帝概念：纯现实，无潜能，作为最终的目地因，通过作为欲望和思想的对象推动万物，自身却不动。
Substance (ousia): For Aristotle, the primary reality — the individual thing (e.g., this man, this horse) — composed of matter and form. It is the subject of predication and persists through change.
实体（ousia）：对于亚里士多德，首要实在——个体事物（如这个男人，这匹马）——由质料和形式组成。它是谓述的主体，并在变化中持存。
10. Political Philosophy: Key Concepts | 政治哲学关键概念
Social contract: The theory that the legitimacy of government derives from a hypothetical agreement among free individuals to form a society and submit to authority in exchange for protection of rights. Key thinkers: Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau.
社会契约：认为政府合法性源于自由个体之间假设的协议，以形成社会并服从权威以换取权利保护的理论。代表人物：霍布斯、洛克、卢梭。
General will (Rousseau): The collective will of the people aimed at the common good, distinct from the mere ‘will of all’ (sum of private interests). To obey the general will is to be truly free.
公意（卢梭）：人民以共同利益为目标的集体意志，不同于单纯的“众意”（私人利益之和）。遵从公意才是真正的自由。
Negative freedom (Berlin): Freedom from interference by others — the absence of external constraints. ‘I am free to the extent that no one coerces me.’
消极自由（伯林）：免于他人干涉的自由——没有外部约束。“我在无人强制我的限度内是自由的。”
Positive freedom (Berlin): Freedom as self-mastery or self-realisation — the capacity to be one’s own master and act according to reason and one’s higher nature.
积极自由（伯林）：作为自我主宰或自我实现的自由——成为自己主人、依据理性和更高本性行动的能力。
Harm principle (Mill): The only justification for interfering with an individual’s liberty is to prevent harm to others. Self-regarding actions are immune from interference.
伤害原则（密尔）：干涉个人自由的唯一正当理由是防止对他人的伤害。只关乎自身的行动不受干涉。
11. Aesthetics: Core Terms | 美学核心术语
Beauty: A central aesthetic concept often defined by properties such as harmony, proportion, and unity. Classical theories see it as objective; modern theories often regard it as subject-dependent.
美：一个核心美学概念，常以和谐、比例、统一等属性界定。古典理论视之为客观的；现代理论常视之为主观依赖的。
Sublime (Kant, Burke): An aesthetic quality of vastness, terror, or power that overwhelms human comprehension but produces a kind of pleasure when viewed from a safe distance.
崇高（康德、伯克）：一种浩瀚、恐怖或力量的审美品质，压倒人类理解，但从安全距离观看时会产生一种快感。
Disinterestedness: An aesthetic attitude of detached contemplation, free from personal desires, practical concerns, or moral judgments. Crucial in Kant’s account of the judgment of taste.
无利害性：一种超脱的审美静观态度，不受个人欲望、实际关切或道德判断的影响。在康德的审美判断说明中至关重要。
Aesthetic experience: The distinct kind of experience one has when engaging with art or nature, often characterised by immersion, intense focus, and emotional response.
审美经验：人在接触艺术或自然时所获得的一种独特经验，常表现为沉浸、高度专注和情感反应。
Representationalism: The theory that the value of art lies in its accurate representation or imitation of reality (mimesis). Central to Greek and Renaissance aesthetics.
再现论：认为艺术价值在于其对现实的准确再现或模仿（摹仿）。希腊和文艺复兴美学的核心。
12. Logic and Argument | 逻辑与论证
Deductive argument: An argument that aims to provide logically conclusive support for its conclusion: if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. Validity is the key standard.
演绎论证：旨在为其结论提供逻辑上决定性支持的论证：如果前提为真，结论必然为真。有效性是关键标准。
Inductive argument: An argument in which the premises are intended to make the conclusion probable, but not certain. Strength and cogency replace validity and soundness.
归纳论证：前提旨在使结论可能为真，但不具必然性的论证。以强度和可靠取代有效和健全。
Valid (deductive): A deductive argument is valid if and only if it is logically impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion false. Validity does not require the premises to actually be true.
有效（演绎）：一个演绎论证是有效的，当且仅当在逻辑上不可能出现前提真而结论假的情况。有效性不要求前提实际上为真。
Sound (deductive): A deductive argument is sound if and only if it is valid and all its premises are actually true. Soundness guarantees the truth of the conclusion.
健全（演绎）：一个演绎论证是健全的，当且仅当它有效且所有前提实际为真。健全性保证了结论为真。
Fallacy: A defect in reasoning, often due to mistaken relevance, ambiguity, or presumption. Common fallacies include ad hominem, straw man, false dilemma, and begging the question.
谬误：推理中的缺陷，常因错误的相关性、歧义或假设导致。常见谬误包括人身攻击、稻草人、假两难和乞题。
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