📚 AS CAIE Philosophy: Vocabulary and Terminology Quick Memorization Guide | AS CAIE 哲学：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering key terminology is essential for success in AS CAIE Philosophy. This guide brings together the most important concepts from Epistemology and Moral Philosophy, with clear English–Chinese pairing and memory strategies to help you internalise definitions and apply them confidently in essays and exam scripts.
掌握关键术语是AS CAIE 哲学取得成功的核心。本指南汇集了认识论与道德哲学中最关键的概念，以中英对照的方式呈现，并配合记忆策略，帮助你将定义内化，并在论文和考试答题中自信运用。
1. Core Epistemological Concepts | 认识论核心概念
Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature, sources and limits of knowledge. Being able to define its core terms precisely is the first step towards constructing strong philosophical arguments.
认识论是哲学中研究知识的本质、来源与界限的分支。精确界定其核心术语，是构建有力哲学论证的第一步。
| English Term & Definition | 中文术语与定义 |
|---|---|
| Propositional knowledge: knowledge that something is the case (e.g. ‘I know that Paris is the capital of France’). | 命题知识：知道某事实为真的知识（例如“我知道巴黎是法国的首都”）。 |
| Acquaintance knowledge: knowledge of a person, place or thing gained through direct experience. | 亲知知识：通过直接经验获得的、对某人、地点或事物的了解。 |
| Ability knowledge (procedural): knowing how to do something (e.g. knowing how to ride a bike). | 能力知识（程序性知识）：知道如何做某事（例如知道如何骑自行车）。 |
| A priori: knowledge or justification independent of sense experience (e.g. 2 + 2 = 4). | 先验的：独立于感官经验的知识或辩护（例如 2 + 2 = 4）。 |
| A posteriori: knowledge or justification dependent on sense experience (e.g. ‘The sky is blue’). | 后验的：依赖于感官经验的知识或辩护（例如“天空是蓝色的”）。 |
A common exam pitfall is confusing acquaintance knowledge with propositional knowledge. Always ask: ‘Is this knowledge that something is true?’
考试中常见的误区是将亲知知识与命题知识混淆。始终问自己：“这是知道某事物为真的知识吗？”
2. Defining Knowledge: JTB and the Gettier Problem | 知识定义：JTB与盖梯尔问题
The traditional definition of knowledge is ‘justified true belief’ (JTB). According to this view, for a subject S to know that p, S must believe that p, p must be true, and S must have adequate justification for the belief.
知识的传统定义是“经辩护的真信念”（JTB）。根据这一观点，主体 S 知道命题 p 当且仅当 S 相信 p、p 为真，且 S 拥有对该信念的充分辩护。
Gettier cases demonstrated that JTB is not sufficient for knowledge. In such a case, a person has a justified true belief but appears to lack knowledge due to an element of luck or a false presupposition.
盖梯尔案例表明，JTB 并非知识的充分条件。在此类案例中，某人持有经辩护的真信念，但由于运气因素或错误的前提预设，似乎并不拥有知识。
| Term | 中文 | Quick meaning |
|---|---|---|
| Infallibilism | 不可错论 | Knowledge requires absolute certainty |
| Reliabilism | 可靠主义 | A belief counts as knowledge if produced by a reliable cognitive process |
| No false lemmas | 无假引理条件 | Adds the condition that the belief must not be inferred from any false premise |
When revising Gettier, link each response to a specific flaw. For example, reliabilism addresses the fragility of justification by focusing on the process, not just the reasons.
复习盖梯尔问题时，将每种回应与其所针对的缺陷联系起来。例如，可靠主义通过关注过程而非仅理由，来处理辩护的脆弱性。
3. Theories of Perception | 感知理论
Direct realism claims that we perceive physical objects directly as they are, without any intermediary. It faces challenges from illusion and hallucination, which suggest our perceptual experience is not always identical with the external world.
直接实在论声称，我们直接感知物理对象本身，无需任何中介。它面临错觉和幻觉的挑战，这些情况表明我们的感知经验并非总与外部世界一致。
Indirect realism posits that we perceive physical objects indirectly via mind-dependent sense-data. Sense-data are the immediate objects of perception, and they represent, but are distinct from, mind-independent objects.
间接实在论假定我们通过依赖心灵的 sense-data（感觉材料）间接感知物理对象。感觉材料是感知的直接对象，它们表征但不同于独立于心灵的对象。
| Theory | 中文 | Key term |
|---|---|---|
| Idealism | 观念论（唯心主义感知论） | Esse est percipi (to be is to be perceived) |
| Phenomenalism | 现象主义 | Physical objects are permanent possibilities of sensation |
A quick distinction: direct realism says you see the table; indirect realism says you see a table-shaped sense-datum; idealism says the table exists only as a collection of ideas.
快速区分：直接实在论说你看见了桌子本身；间接实在论说你看见了桌子形状的感觉材料；观念论说桌子只作为观念的集合而存在。
4. Scepticism and Responses | 怀疑论与回应
Philosophical scepticism questions whether we can have any knowledge at all. Global scepticism denies all knowledge, while local scepticism targets specific domains, such as knowledge of the external world or induction.
哲学怀疑论质疑我们是否能拥有任何知识。全域怀疑论否定一切知识，而局部怀疑论针对特定领域，例如关于外部世界的知识或归纳知识。
Descartes’ evil demon and the brain-in-a-vat thought experiment are used to push scepticism to its limits. The sceptic exploits the idea that if we cannot rule out a radically different scenario, our ordinary knowledge claims are unjustified.
笛卡尔的恶魔与缸中之脑思想实验被用来将怀疑论推向极致。怀疑论者利用这样一个观点：如果我们无法排除一种彻底不同的情境，那么我们日常的知识断言就没有得到辩护。
| Response to scepticism | 中文 | Core idea |
|---|---|---|
| Common-sense realism (Moore) | 常识实在论（摩尔） | ‘Here is one hand’ – the certainty of ordinary beliefs outweighs sceptical hypotheses |
| Reliabilism | 可靠主义 | If perceptual mechanisms are reliable, we know even if we cannot disprove sceptical scenarios |
| Contextualism | 语境主义 | Knowledge attributions are context-sensitive; sceptical arguments raise the standards absurdly high |
To recall these quickly, think of Moore as ‘common-sense killer’, reliabilism as ‘trust the process’, and contextualism as ‘it depends on the setting’.
为了快速记忆这些回应，将摩尔视为“常识杀手”，将可靠主义视为“相信过程”，将语境主义视为“视情况而定”。
5. Meta-ethics: Cognitivism vs Non-cognitivism | 元伦理学：认知主义与非认知主义
Meta-ethics explores what we are doing when we make moral judgments. Cognitivism holds that moral statements express beliefs that can be true or false. Non-cognitivism argues that moral utterances are not truth-apt but express emotions, commands or attitudes.
元伦理学探讨我们在做出道德判断时究竟在做什么。认知主义认为道德陈述表达可以为其或假的信念。非认知主义则主张道德话语不在于判断真值，而是表达情感、指令或态度。
Key terms to memorise: ethical naturalism (moral properties are natural properties), ethical non-naturalism (moral properties are sui generis), emotivism (moral judgments are emotional expressions) and prescriptivism (moral judgments are universalisable prescriptions).
需要记住的关键术语：伦理自然主义（道德属性是自然属性）、伦理非自然主义（道德属性是独特的）、情感主义（道德判断是情感表达）和规定主义（道德判断是可普遍化的规定）。
| Meta-ethical theory | 中文 | Slogan for memory |
|---|---|---|
| Naturalism (e.g. utilitarianism’s foundation) | 自然主义 | ‘Good equals pleasure’ – reducible to natural facts |
| Intuitionism (non-naturalism) | 直觉主义（非自然主义） | ‘Good is unanalysable’ – known by intuition |
| Emotivism (Ayer, Stevenson) | 情感主义 | ‘Boo-hurrah’ theory – ‘Murder is wrong’ means ‘Boo to murder!’ |
| Prescriptivism (Hare) | 规定主义 | Moral language as universal commands – ‘Do not murder’ |
When comparing, identify the core disagreement: do you think ‘Murder is wrong’ is like saying ‘The cat is on the mat’ (cognitivism) or like shouting ‘Ouch!’ (non-cognitivism)?
进行比较时，找出核心分歧：你认为“谋杀是错误的”更像说“猫在垫子上”（认知主义），还是像大喊“哎哟！”（非认知主义）？
6. Normative Ethical Theories | 规范伦理学理论
Normative ethics tells us how we ought to act. The three major theories are utilitarianism (consequentialism), deontology (Kantian ethics) and virtue ethics. Each offers a different ultimate criterion of rightness.
规范伦理学告诉我们应当如何行动。三大理论是功利主义（后果论）、义务论（康德伦理学）和美德伦理学。每个理论给出了不同的最终正当性标准。
Act utilitarianism judges each individual action by its consequences: maximise happiness. Rule utilitarianism evaluates rules that, if generally followed, produce the greatest good. Deontology focuses on duty: act according to maxims that you can universalise. Virtue ethics shifts the question to ‘What kind of person should I be?’ and emphasises character traits (virtues).
行为功利主义根据具体行为的后果来评判：最大化幸福。规则功利主义评估那些如果被普遍遵循会产生最大善的规则。义务论关注义务：按照你能普遍化的准则行动。美德伦理学则将问题转变为“我应当成为什么样的人？”，并强调品格特质（美德）。
| Theory | 中文 | Central test |
|---|---|---|
| Utilitarianism | 功利主义 | Greatest happiness principle |
| Kantian deontology | 康德式义务论 | Categorical imperative (universalisation + formula of humanity) |
| Virtue ethics (Aristotle) | 美德伦理学（亚里士多德） | Doctrine of the mean: virtue is a mean between extremes |
An easy memory aid: utilitarianism cares about the outcome, deontology cares about the action itself, virtue ethics cares about the agent’s character.
一个简单的记忆辅助：功利主义关心结果，义务论关心行为本身，美德伦理学关心行为者的品格。
7. Applied Ethics Concepts | 应用伦理学概念
Applied ethics brings normative theories to bear on practical issues. You must be able to define central concepts such as personhood, sanctity of life, quality of life, autonomy, consent and justice.
应用伦理学将规范理论运用到实际问题上。你必须能够定义诸如人格、生命神圣性、生命质量、自主性、同意与正义等核心概念。
For topics like euthanasia, distinguish among voluntary, non-voluntary and involuntary euthanasia. In discussions of abortion, terms like ‘potentiality’ and ‘viability’ are crucial. Utilitarian and deontological analyses of these issues often hinge on exactly how such terms are characterised.
对于安乐死等议题，区分自愿、非自愿与不自愿安乐死。在堕胎讨论中，“潜能性”与“可存活期”等术语至关重要。对这些问题的功利主义和义务论分析往往取决于这些术语如何被精确界定。
| Concept | 中文 | Brief definition |
|---|---|---|
| Sanctity of life | 生命神圣性 | Human life has intrinsic value and should never be intentionally ended |
| Quality of life | 生命质量 | The value of continuing life depends on its experiential and functional quality |
| Autonomy | 自主性 | The capacity of a rational individual to make informed, uncoerced decisions |
| Personhood | 人格 | A set of criteria (e.g. self-awareness) that confer moral status |
Be precise: do not confuse ‘voluntary euthanasia’ with ‘assisted suicide’ – the former may involve a third party performing the final act, whereas the latter requires the patient to carry out the fatal action themselves.
用词要精确：不要将“自愿安乐死”与“协助自杀”混淆——前者可能涉及第三方执行最终行为，后者则要求患者自己实施致命行为。
8. Philosophical Logic and Reasoning | 哲学逻辑与推理
In AS Philosophy, you are expected to recognise and construct arguments. An argument consists of premises that aim to support a conclusion. Mastering logical vocabulary allows you to dissect exam passages and shape your own essays.
在 AS 哲学中，你需要识别并构建论证。论证由旨在支持结论的前提组成。掌握逻辑词汇能让你剖析考试文本，并塑造自己的论文。
| English | 中文 | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| Premise | 前提 | A statement that provides a reason for the conclusion |
| Validity | 有效性 | If premises are true, the conclusion must be true (in deductive logic) |
| Soundness | 可靠性 | A valid argument with all true premises |
| Inductive strength | 归纳力度 | Premises make the conclusion probable but do not guarantee it |
| Modus ponens | 肯定前件式 | If P then Q; P; therefore Q (e.g. P → Q, P ⊢ Q) |
| Modus tollens | 否定后件式 | If P then Q; not Q; therefore not P (P → Q, ¬Q ⊢ ¬P) |
Use these logical labels when evaluating an argument in the exam. Saying ‘This argument is valid but unsound because Premise 2 is false’ demonstrates technical precision.
在考试中评价论证时，使用这些逻辑标签。说“该论证有效但不可靠，因为前提 2 为假”能展现出术语运用的精确性。
9. Famous Thought Experiments | 著名的思想实验
Thought experiments are essential tools in philosophy. Knowing their names and what they test lets you deploy them swiftly in essays. Here are the most referenced ones in AS CAIE Philosophy.
思想实验是哲学中的重要工具。了解它们的名称及其所要检验的问题，能让你在论文中快速运用。以下是 AS CAIE 哲学中最常被引用的思想实验。
| Thought experiment | 中文 | What it challenges |
|---|---|---|
| Gettier cases | 盖梯尔案例 | The JTB definition of knowledge |
| Brain in a vat | 缸中之脑 | Whether we can know the external world exists |
| Mary’s room (knowledge argument) | 玛丽的房间（知识论证） | Physicalism – whether knowing all physical facts gives complete knowledge |
| Trolley problem | 电车难题 | The distinction between act and omission, and between utilitarianism and deontology |
| The ring of Gyges | 古格斯戒指 | Whether justice is good in itself or only for its consequences
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