📚 AS CAIE Politics: Glossary & Terminology Quick Guide | AS CAIE 政治：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering the vocabulary of politics is essential for any student of the AS CAIE Politics course. This quick guide provides clear and concise definitions of the most important terms you will encounter across the UK government and political ideas segments. Each term is explained first in English and then in Chinese to help you reinforce your understanding and memory. Use these terms as building blocks for your essays and exam answers.
掌握政治学词汇是 AS CAIE 政治课程学习的基础。本速记指南为你梳理了英国政府与政治以及政治思想单元中最关键的术语，并提供清晰简明的释义。每个术语先给出英文解释，再配以中文释义，帮助你巩固理解并强化记忆。把这些术语当作构筑论文和考试答案的基石。
1. Core Political Concepts | 核心政治概念
Power – The ability to make others do something they would not otherwise do, through coercion, persuasion or influence. It is the currency of politics and can be exercised by individuals, groups or institutions.
权力 – 通过强制、说服或影响使他人做其原本不会做的事情的能力。权力是政治的硬通货，可由个人、团体或机构行使。
Authority – The right to exercise power, based on consent and perceived legitimacy rather than force. Authority makes compliance voluntary and is often derived from tradition, charisma or legal-rational rules.
权威 – 基于同意和被认可的合法性而非强制力来行使权力的权利。权威使服从成为自愿行为，通常源于传统、个人魅力或法理规则。
Legitimacy – The belief that a ruler, institution or decision has the right to govern. A government with legitimacy is widely accepted, even if people disagree with specific policies. Elections, constitutional rules and fairness all help build legitimacy.
合法性 – 认为统治者、机构或决策有权进行统治的信念。拥有合法性的政府被广泛接受，即使民众反对其某些政策。选举、宪法规则和公平性都有助于建立合法性。
Sovereignty – The supreme and unrestricted power to make laws and govern. In the UK, legal sovereignty lies with Parliament (parliamentary sovereignty), while political sovereignty ultimately rests with the electorate. Popular sovereignty means the people are the source of all political authority.
主权 – 不受限制的、至高无上的立法和统治权力。在英国，法律主权属于议会（议会主权），而政治主权最终归于选民。人民主权则意味着人民是一切政治权威的来源。
2. Democracy and Participation | 民主与政治参与
Democracy – A system of government in which the people hold ultimate power, either directly or through elected representatives. Key features include free and fair elections, protection of rights, the rule of law and accountability of the government to the people.
民主 – 一种人民享有最终权力的政府体制，可直接行使或通过选举产生的代表间接行使。主要特征包括自由公正的选举、权利保护、法治以及政府对人民负责。
Direct Democracy – A form of democracy in which citizens make political decisions themselves, rather than delegating them to representatives. Devices such as referendums, initiatives and recall procedures are examples. Switzerland is often cited as a model, and the UK used a referendum for Brexit.
直接民主 – 公民亲自作出政治决策而非委托给代表的民主形式。公民投票、公民倡议和罢免程序等是直接民主的手段。瑞士常被视为典范，英国脱欧公投也是直接民主的实例。
Representative Democracy – A system where citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf. The UK is a representative democracy: MPs and councillors are chosen to act for the people, and they are held accountable through regular elections.
代议制民主 – 公民选举代表代替自己作出决策的体制。英国是代议制民主：国会议员和地方议员被选出代表人民行事，并通过定期选举接受问责。
Pluralism – A theory that political power is widely dispersed among many competing groups, preventing any single group from dominating. Pluralists argue that pressure groups, parties and institutions all check each other, allowing diverse interests to shape policy.
多元主义 – 一种认为政治权力广泛分散于众多竞争性团体中的理论，可防止任何单一集团主宰政治。多元论者认为，利益集团、政党和机构相互制衡，让多样化的利益共同塑造政策。
3. Constitution and the Rule of Law | 宪法与法治
Constitution – The set of rules that establish the duties, powers and functions of government institutions, and define the relationship between the state and the individual. A constitution may be codified (written in a single document, like the US) or uncodified (drawn from multiple sources, like the UK).
宪法 – 规定政府机构的职责、权力和职能，并界定国家与个人关系的一套规则。宪法可以是成文法典（如美国，单一文件）或不成文的（如英国，源于多种渊源）。
Uncodified Constitution – A constitution that is not contained in a single authoritative document. The UK constitution is described as uncodified, being made up of statute law, common law, conventions, works of authority and European Union law (while membership lasted).
不成文宪法 – 未包含在单一权威文件中的宪法。英国宪法被描述为不成文宪法，由成文法、普通法、惯例、权威著作和欧盟法（在加入期间）构成。
Rule of Law – The principle that law should govern a nation, not the arbitrary decisions of individual rulers. It implies that everyone is equal before the law, the legal process is fair, and government itself is bound by the law. A.V. Dicey famously set out its core elements.
法治 – 法律而非统治者个人意志应治理国家的原则。这意味法律面前人人平等，法律程序公正，政府自身也受法律约束。戴西曾著名地阐述了法治的核心要素。
Parliamentary Sovereignty – The doctrine that Parliament is the supreme legal authority in the UK; it can make or unmake any law, and no person or body can override or set aside its legislation. Even if a law is seen as unjust, the courts must apply it, unless an act like the Human Rights Act creates a balance.
议会主权 – 议会是英国最高法律权威的原则；它可以制定或废除任何法律，任何个人或机构均不能推翻或搁置其立法。即使某项法律被视为不公，法院也必须予以适用，除非《人权法》等法律设置了平衡机制。
4. The Core Executive and UK Institutions | 行政核心与英国机构
Prime Minister – The head of the government and leader of the political party that commands a majority in the House of Commons. The PM appoints ministers, chairs the Cabinet, sets the overall policy direction and represents the UK internationally. Power may be more presidential or cabinet-focused depending on style.
首相 – 政府首脑，也是在下议院中拥有多数席位的政党领袖。首相任命大臣、主持内阁会议、确定总体政策方向并代表英国参与国际事务。其权力可因个人风格偏向总统式或内阁式。
Cabinet – A body of senior ministers, most heading a government department, appointed by the Prime Minister. The Cabinet makes major decisions, coordinates policy and provides collective responsibility, meaning all ministers must publicly support Cabinet decisions or resign.
内阁 – 由首相任命的高级大臣组成的机构，多数各自领导一个政府部门。内阁作出重大决策、协调政策并实行集体负责制，即所有大臣必须公开支持内阁决定，否则辞职。
Civil Service – Permanent, politically neutral officials who serve the government of the day. Civil servants implement policy, offer expert advice and remain in post when governments change. They are expected to observe the principles of impartiality, anonymity and permanence.
文官 – 常任的、政治中立的官员，为当届政府服务。文官负责执行政策、提供专业建议，并在政府更迭时留任。他们须遵循中立、匿名和常任原则。
Royal Prerogative – The residual powers once exercised by the monarch that are now, by convention, used by the Prime Minister and ministers. These include the power to declare war, negotiate treaties, grant honours and dissolve Parliament (the latter now constrained by the Fixed-term Parliaments Act).
王室特权 – 原由君主行使、现按惯例由首相和大臣使用的残余权力。包括宣战、谈判条约、授予荣誉和解散议会（后者现受《固定任期议会法》限制）。
5. Parliament and the Legislative Process | 议会与立法程序
House of Commons – The lower house of the UK Parliament, whose members (MPs) are directly elected by single-member constituencies using the first-past-the-post system. The Commons holds the government to account, scrutinises legislation and grants supply (approves taxation and spending).
下议院 – 英国议会的下院，其议员由单选区采用简单多数制直接选举产生。下议院负责监督政府问责、审查立法并批准拨款（税收和开支）。
House of Lords – The upper house, mainly composed of appointed life peers, bishops and a small number of hereditary peers. It revises legislation, acts as a check on the Commons and provides expert debate. The Lords can delay most bills but cannot permanently block the will of the elected house.
上议院 – 主要由受任命的终身贵族、主教和少数世袭贵族组成的上院。它负责修订立法、制约下议院并提供专业辩论。上议院可延迟大多数法案，但不能永久阻挠民选议院的意愿。
Backbenchers – MPs or peers who do not hold government or shadow ministerial posts. Backbenchers can influence policy through select committees, private members’ bills, questions and debates. Their independence helps ensure the executive is scrutinised from within the legislature.
后座议员 – 未担任政府或影子内阁职务的下院或上院议员。后座议员可通过特别委员会、议员私人法案、质询和辩论影响政策。其独立性有助于从立法机构内部对行政进行审查。
Whips – MPs or peers appointed by each party to maintain discipline, ensure members attend votes and communicate the leadership’s instructions. A three-line whip signals a crucial vote; defying it can lead to suspension from the parliamentary party.
党鞭 – 各政党任命的负责维持纪律、确保党员出席投票并传达领导层指示的议员。三线党鞭意味着关键性投票；违抗指令可能导致被暂停议会党团资格。
6. Elections and Electoral Systems | 选举与选举制度
First-Past-the-Post (FPTP) – A simple plurality electoral system used for Westminster elections. Voters choose one candidate, and the candidate with the most votes in each constituency wins, regardless of whether they achieve an absolute majority. FPTP tends to produce single-party majority governments but can distort the share of seats.
简单多数制 – 用于英国议会选举的简单相对多数选举制度。选民选择一名候选人，每个选区获得票数最多的候选人胜出，无论其是否达到绝对多数。该制度倾向于产生单党多数政府，但可能扭曲席位比例。
Proportional Representation (PR) – A family of electoral systems that aim to match the percentage of votes a party receives with the percentage of seats it gains. Forms include the Single Transferable Vote (STV) and the Additional Member System (AMS). The UK uses PR for devolved institutions like the Scottish Parliament.
比例代表制 – 旨在使政党所得选票比例与所获席位比例相匹配的一系列选举制度。形式包括单一可转移投票制和附记席位制。英国在苏格兰议会等权力下放机构的选举中采用比例代表制。
Referendum – A direct vote by the electorate on a single political question, usually requiring a yes/no answer. Referendums are a device of direct democracy used in the UK on issues such as EU membership (1975 and 2016) and Scottish independence (2014).
全民公投 – 选民就某一政治问题直接进行的投票，通常要求回答是/否。公投是直接民主的手段，英国在欧共体/欧盟成员身份（1975年和2016年）和苏格兰独立（2014年）等问题上使用过。
Suffrage – The right to vote in political elections. Universal adult suffrage was established in stages in the UK, with the franchise extended to all men over 21 in 1918, women over 21 in 1928, and the voting age lowered to 18 in 1969.
选举权 – 在政治选举中投票的权利。英国分阶段确立了成人普选权：1918年所有21岁以上男性获得选举权，1928年21岁以上女性获得，1969年投票年龄降至18岁。
7. Political Parties and Pressure Groups | 政党与利益集团
Political Party – An organised group of people with similar political aims and opinions, seeking to win political power through elections in order to implement its policies. The main UK parties are the Conservative Party, Labour Party and Liberal Democrats.
政党 – 由具有相似政治目标和观点的人组成的有组织的团体，旨在通过选举赢得政治权力以实施其政策。英国的主要政党有保守党、工党和自由民主党。
Pressure Group – An organised group that seeks to influence government policy or legislation without seeking to become the government itself. Pressure groups may be sectional (defending interests of a group, like the BMA for doctors) or promotional (advocating a cause, like Greenpeace for the environment).
利益集团 – 寻求影响政府政策或立法而不谋求执政的有组织的团体。利益集团可以是利益保护型（捍卫某一群体利益，如医生工会BMA）或理念倡导型（倡导某一事业，如绿色和平组织）。
Lobbying – The professional practice of attempting to influence decisions made by government, often carried out by paid consultants on behalf of corporations or pressure groups. Insiders lobby quietly through contacts, while outsiders may use media campaigns or protests.
游说 – 试图影响政府决策的专业活动，通常由受雇顾问代表企业或利益集团进行。内部集团通过人脉悄悄游说，外部集团则可能借助媒体运动或抗议活动。
Mandate – The authority granted by the electorate to a party or candidate to carry out the promises made in its manifesto. A strong electoral mandate provides legitimacy for a government’s programme, though the specifics of the mandate are often debated.
授权 – 选民授予政党或候选人实施其竞选宣言承诺的权力。强有力的选举授权为政府计划提供合法性，尽管授权的具体内容常有争议。
8. Liberalism: Core Ideas and Branches | 自由主义：核心理念与分支
Liberalism – An ideology centred on the primacy of individual freedom, reason, tolerance and limited government. Liberals believe in natural rights, constitutionalism and the free market, but disagree on how much the state should intervene to promote equality of opportunity.
自由主义 – 以个人自由、理性、宽容和有限政府为核心的意识形态。自由主义者相信自然权利、宪政和自由市场，但在国家应多大程度干预以促进机会平等方面存在分歧。
Classical Liberalism – Early liberalism emphasising negative liberty (freedom from interference), minimal state action and laissez-faire economics. Thinkers like John Locke argued for government by consent, while Adam Smith championed free trade and the invisible hand of the market.
古典自由主义 – 强调消极自由（免于干涉的自由）、最小国家行为和自由放任经济学的早期自由主义。洛克主张政府须经同意，亚当·斯密则推崇自由贸易和市场“看不见的手”。
Modern Liberalism – A development of liberalism that accepts a more positive role for the state, enabling individuals to achieve their full potential. Thinkers like T.H. Green and John Rawls argued for welfare provision and social justice to ensure effective freedom for all, not just formal rights.
现代自由主义 – 自由主义的一种发展，接受国家发挥更积极作用，使个人能够发挥全部潜能。格林和罗尔斯等思想家主张通过福利提供和社会正义确保每个人享有实质自由，而不仅限于形式权利。
Harm Principle – J.S. Mill’s idea that the only justification for restricting individual liberty is to prevent harm to others. Mill’s ‘On Liberty’ asserts that self-regarding actions should be free from state or social interference, a keystone of liberal tolerance.
伤害原则 – 密尔提出的思想，认为限制个人自由的唯一理由是防止对他人造成伤害。密尔在《论自由》中主张，关涉自我的行为应不受国家或社会干涉，这是自由主义宽容的基石。
9. Conservatism: Tradition, Authority and the New Right | 保守主义：传统、权威与新右派
Conservatism – An ideology that values tradition, order, authority and property, and is sceptical of abstract theories and rapid change. Conservatives see society as an organic whole and believe reforms should build on existing institutions rather than destroy them.
保守主义 – 重视传统、秩序、权威和财产、对抽象理论和急剧变革持怀疑态度的意识形态。保守主义者视社会为有机整体，认为改革应建立在现有制度之上，而非将其摧毁。
One Nation Conservatism – A paternalistic strand associated with Benjamin Disraeli, advocating that the rich have obligations to the poor and that reform can prevent revolution. It supports a mixed economy, welfare and social cohesion, aiming to unite all classes within one nation.
一国保守主义 – 与迪斯累里相关的家长式流派，主张富人对穷人负有义务，改革可防止革命。它支持混合经济、福利和社会团结，旨在将所有阶级统一于一个国家之内。
New Right – A fusion of neo-liberal economics (free market, privatisation, cutting taxes) and neo-conservative social policies (restoring authority, traditional values, strong law and order). Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan embodied this approach, rolling back the state economically but strengthening it socially.
新右派 – 新自由主义经济学（自由市场、私有化、减税）与新保守主义社会政策（恢复权威、传统价值观、强化法律与秩序）的融合。撒切尔和里根体现了这一路径，在经济上收缩国家，在社会上加强国家。
Organic Society – The conservative belief that society is a living organism, not a machine, and that its institutions (family, church, monarchy) have evolved gradually to meet human needs. Sudden change can damage this fragile organism, so reform must be cautious.
有机社会 – 保守主义信念，认为社会是一个生命有机体而非机器，其制度（家庭、教会、君主制）经逐渐演变而满足人类需求。突然的改变会伤害这个脆弱的有机体，因此改革必须谨慎。
10. Socialism: Equality, Community and Social Justice | 社会主义：平等、共同体与社会正义
Socialism – An ideology that emphasises community, cooperation, social equality and the common ownership of wealth. Socialists criticise capitalism for fostering inequality and alienation, and argue for collective action to build a fairer society.
社会主义 – 强调共同体、合作、社会平等与财富共同所有的意识形态。社会主义者批评资本主义助长不平等和异化，并主张通过集体行动建设更公平的社会。
Marxism – A revolutionary strand of socialism based on the writings of Karl Marx, arguing that history is a class struggle and that capitalism will be overthrown by the proletariat. Marx envisaged a dictatorship of the proletariat leading to a classless, communist society. Lenin adapted Marxism to justify a vanguard party.
马克思主义 – 基于马克思著作的革命性社会主义流派，认为历史是阶级斗争，资本主义将被无产阶级推翻。马克思设想无产阶级专政最终导致无阶级的共产主义社会。列宁改编马克思主义以论证先锋队政党的必要性。
Social Democracy – A reformist and non-revolutionary path to socialism, accepting that capitalism can be made fairer through progressive taxation, strong welfare states and nationalisation of key industries. Figures like Clement Attlee and Anthony Crosland argued that socialism could be achieved via parliamentary democracy without violent revolution.
社会民主主义 – 一种改良而非革命的社会主义道路，承认通过累进税制、强大福利国家和关键行业国有化能使资本主义变得更为公平。艾德礼和克罗斯兰等人认为，社会主义可经由议会民主实现，无需暴力革命。
Common Ownership – The socialist goal of placing productive resources (land, factories, energy) in the hands of the community, either through state ownership (nationalisation) or cooperative models. Socialists believe this reduces class divisions and ensures wealth serves the common good rather than private profit.
共同所有 – 社会主义将生产资料（土地、工厂、能源）交由共同体掌握的目标，可通过国家所有（国有化）或合作模式实现。社会主义者认为，共同所有能够减少阶级分化，确保财富服务于共同利益而非私人利润。
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