Core Knowledge Review for Pre-U CIE Psychology | Pre-U CIE 心理学核心知识点梳理

📚 Core Knowledge Review for Pre-U CIE Psychology | Pre-U CIE 心理学核心知识点梳理

This article provides a comprehensive overview of the essential topics in the Cambridge Pre-U Psychology syllabus. It is designed to help students consolidate their understanding of key concepts, theories, and research methods required for the examination.

本文全面概述了剑桥 Pre-U 心理学大纲的核心主题，旨在帮助学生巩固对考试所需的关键概念、理论和研究方法的理解。

1. Research Methods in Psychology | 心理学研究方法

Experimental studies involve the manipulation of an independent variable (IV) to observe its effect on a dependent variable (DV), while attempting to control extraneous variables that might confound results. A clear hypothesis must be operationalised, meaning variables are defined in measurable terms.

实验研究涉及操纵自变量 (IV) 以观察其对因变量 (DV) 的影响，同时努力控制可能混淆结果的额外变量。一个清晰的假设必须被操作化，即变量要以可测量的术语来定义。

Three main experimental designs are used: independent groups design, where different participants take part in each condition; repeated measures design, where the same participants experience all conditions; and matched pairs design, where participants are paired based on key characteristics and then split across conditions. Each design has its own strengths and weaknesses regarding participant variables and order effects.

主要采用三种实验设计：独立组设计，不同被试参与不同条件；重复测量设计，相同被试经历所有条件；配对组设计，根据关键特征将被试配对后分配至不同条件。就参与者变量和顺序效应而言，每种设计都有其优势与不足。

Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines such as obtaining informed consent, avoiding deception unless justified, protecting confidentiality, and ensuring the right to withdraw. Debriefing is essential after the study, and any potential harm must be minimised.

研究者必须遵守伦理准则，如获得知情同意、除非有正当理由否则不使用欺骗、保护隐私并确保被试有退出权。研究后必须进行事后解释，且任何潜在伤害必须最小化。

---

2. Biological Psychology | 生物心理学

Neurons communicate via electrical impulses and chemical signals. An action potential travels down the axon, triggering the release of neurotransmitters at the synapse. These chemical messengers bind to receptor sites on the postsynaptic neuron, producing either excitatory or inhibitory effects.

神经元通过电冲动和化学信号进行交流。动作电位沿轴突传递，触发突触处神经递质的释放。这些化学信使与突触后神经元上的受体位点结合，产生兴奋或抑制效应。

The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord, while the peripheral nervous system connects the CNS to the rest of the body. Brain imaging techniques such as fMRI and PET scans have allowed psychologists to study localisation of function, for example the role of the prefrontal cortex in decision-making and the amygdala in emotional processing.

中枢神经系统 (CNS) 由脑和脊髓组成，外周神经系统则将 CNS 与身体其他部位相连。fMRI 和 PET 等脑成像技术让心理学家能够研究功能定位，例如前额叶皮层在决策中的作用以及杏仁核在情绪加工中的作用。

The endocrine system influences behaviour through hormones. The pituitary gland, often called the ‘master gland’, controls other glands. For instance, adrenaline released from the adrenal medulla prepares the body for fight-or-flight, while cortisol is linked to chronic stress effects on the immune system.

内分泌系统通过激素影响行为。垂体常被称为 “总腺体”，控制其他腺体。例如，肾上腺髓质释放的肾上腺素使身体做好战斗或逃跑准备，而皮质醇与免疫系统的慢性压力效应有关。

---

3. Cognitive Psychology | 认知心理学

The multi-store model of memory (Atkinson and Shiffrin) proposes three separate stores: sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). Information moves between stores through attention and rehearsal. STM has limited capacity and duration, while LTM is potentially unlimited.

记忆的多存储模型 (Atkinson 和 Shiffrin) 提出三个独立的存储库：感觉记忆、短时记忆 (STM) 和长时记忆 (LTM)。信息通过注意和复述在存储库之间转移。STM 的容量和时长有限，而 LTM 可能是无限的。

Baddeley and Hitch’s working memory model replaces the idea of a unitary STM with a central executive that supervises two slave systems: the phonological loop, which processes verbal and auditory information, and the visuospatial sketchpad, which handles visual and spatial data. The episodic buffer was later added to integrate information.

Baddeley 和 Hitch 的工作记忆模型用一个中央执行器取代了单一 STM 的构想，该执行器管理两个从属系统：处理言语和听觉信息的语音回路，以及处理视觉和空间信息的视空间画板。后来加入了情景缓冲器以整合信息。

Eyewitness testimony can be influenced by post-event information, as shown by Loftus and Palmer’s studies using leading questions. Memory is reconstructive, and schema-driven expectations may distort recall. The cognitive interview technique aims to enhance retrieval by reinstating context and reducing leading questioning.

目击者证词可能受事后信息影响，如 Loftus 和 Palmer 使用引导性问题的研究所揭示。记忆是重构性的，图式驱动的期望可能扭曲回忆。认知访谈技术旨在通过恢复情境和减少引导性提问来增强提取。

---

4. Learning Theories | 学习理论

Classical conditioning, demonstrated by Pavlov, involves learning through association. A neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus that naturally produces an unconditioned response, until the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus eliciting a conditioned response. Key processes include extinction, spontaneous recovery, and generalisation.

巴甫洛夫展示的经典条件反射涉及通过联结进行学习。一个中性刺激反复与能自然引发无条件反应的无条件刺激相配对，直到中性刺激成为能引发条件反应的条件刺激。关键过程包括消退、自发恢复和泛化。

Operant conditioning (Skinner) explains learning through consequences. Positive reinforcement strengthens a behaviour by providing a pleasant outcome; negative reinforcement strengthens it by removing an unpleasant stimulus. Punishment aims to weaken a behaviour. Schedules of reinforcement influence the rate and persistence of learning.

操作性条件反射 (斯金纳) 用后果解释学习。正强化通过提供愉快的结果来加强行为；负强化通过移除不愉快刺激来加强行为。惩罚旨在削弱行为。强化程式影响学习的速率和持久性。

Bandura’s social learning theory emphasises observational learning and imitation. Individuals, especially children, learn by observing role models. Mediational processes (attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation) determine whether observed behaviour is imitated. The Bobo doll experiments demonstrated that aggressive behaviour can be learned through observation.

班杜拉的社会学习理论强调观察学习和模仿。个体，尤其是儿童，通过观察榜样进行学习。中介过程 (注意、保持、再现和动机) 决定观察到的行为是否被模仿。波波玩偶实验表明，攻击行为可以通过观察习得。

---

5. Social Psychology | 社会心理学

Asch’s conformity studies revealed that people often conform to a majority view even when it is clearly wrong. Variables affecting conformity include group size, unanimity, and task difficulty. Normative social influence (desire to fit in) and informational social influence (desire to be right) explain why people conform.

Asch 的从众研究揭示，即使多数人的观点明显错误，人们也常常会从众。影响从众的变量包括群体大小、一致性和任务难度。规范社会影响 (希望融入) 和信息社会影响 (希望正确) 解释了人们从众的原因。

Milgram’s obedience experiments demonstrated that ordinary people are surprisingly willing to obey an authority figure, even when instructed to administer what they believed were dangerous electric shocks. Situational factors such as proximity of the victim, location, and uniform presence strongly affect obedience levels.

Milgram 的服从实验表明，普通人对权威人物的服从意愿令人惊讶，即使被要求施加他们认为是危险的电击。情境因素如受害者的接近程度、地点和制服存在强烈影响服从水平。

Latané and Darley’s bystander intervention model explains why people fail to help in emergencies. The decision to intervene goes through stages: noticing the event, interpreting it as an emergency, assuming responsibility, knowing how to help, and deciding to implement help. Diffusion of responsibility and pluralistic ignorance often reduce helping behaviour.

Latané 和 Darley 的旁观者干预模型解释了为什么人们在紧急情况下不提供帮助。决定干预需经历若干阶段：注意到事件、将其解释为紧急情况、承担责任、知道如何帮助以及决定实施帮助。责任扩散和多元无知常常减少助人行为。

---

6. Developmental Psychology | 发展心理学

Attachment theory (Bowlby) proposes that infants are biologically predisposed to form attachments with caregivers for survival. The internal working model forms a blueprint for future relationships. Ainsworth’s Strange Situation identified secure, insecure-avoidant, and insecure-resistant attachment types, linked to caregiver sensitivity.

依恋理论 (Bowlby) 提出婴儿在生物学上倾向于与照料者形成依恋以确保生存。内部工作模式为未来关系形成蓝图。Ainsworth 的陌生情境识别出安全型、不安全-回避型和不安全-反抗型依恋，它们与照料者敏感性相关。

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development describes four stages: sensorimotor (object permanence), preoperational (egocentrism, lack of conservation), concrete operational (logical thinking about concrete events), and formal operational (abstract reasoning). Piaget believed children construct understanding through schemas, assimilation, and accommodation.

皮亚杰的认知发展理论描述了四个阶段：感知运动阶段 (客体永久性)、前运算阶段 (自我中心主义、缺乏守恒)、具体运算阶段 (关于具体事件的逻辑思维) 和形式运算阶段 (抽象推理)。皮亚杰认为儿童通过图式、同化和顺应建构理解。

Vygotsky emphasised the role of social interaction in cognitive development. The zone of proximal development (ZPD) is the gap between what a child can do alone and what can be achieved with guidance. Scaffolding by a more knowledgeable other helps the child progress through the ZPD.

维果茨基强调社会互动在认知发展中的作用。最近发展区 (ZPD) 是儿童独立完成与在指导下可达成之间的差距。由更有知识的他人提供的支架帮助儿童在 ZPD 内进步。

---

7. Individual Differences | 个体差异

Freud’s psychodynamic theory of personality posits three structures: the id (pleasure principle), ego (reality principle), and superego (morality principle). Unconscious conflicts between these structures, especially during psychosexual stages, shape adult personality. Defence mechanisms like repression protect the ego from anxiety.

弗洛伊德的精神分析人格理论提出三种结构：本我 (快乐原则)、自我 (现实原则) 和超我 (道德原则)。这些结构之间的无意识冲突，特别是在心理性欲阶段，塑造了成人人格。压抑等防御机制保护自我免受焦虑。

The trait approach to personality identifies stable characteristics. Eysenck proposed three dimensions: extraversion-introversion, neuroticism-stability, and psychoticism. The Big Five model (OCEAN) includes openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. These traits are measured through questionnaires and linked to biological bases.

人格的特质取向识别稳定特征。艾森克提出三个维度：外向-内向、神经质-稳定性和精神质。大五模型 (OCEAN) 包括开放性、尽责性、外向性、宜人性和神经质。这些特质通过问卷测量，并与生物基础相关联。

Intelligence has been defined in various ways, from Spearman’s ‘g’ factor to Gardner’s multiple intelligences. IQ tests measure cognitive abilities but can be biased culturally. The Flynn effect describes the observed rise in IQ scores over generations, possibly due to environmental changes.

智力有多种定义方式，从斯皮尔曼的 “g” 因素到加德纳的多元智力。智商测验测量认知能力但可能存在文化偏差。弗林效应描述了观测到的智商分数逐代上升的现象，可能由环境变化所致。

---

8. Abnormal Psychology | 异常心理学

Abnormality is defined using four main criteria: statistical infrequency, deviation from social norms, failure to function adequately, and deviation from ideal mental health. Classification systems like the DSM-5 and ICD-11 provide diagnostic criteria for mental disorders, improving reliability and communication.

异常通过四个主要标准定义：统计罕见、偏离社会规范、功能受损以及偏离理想心理健康。DSM-5 和 ICD-11 等分类系统为精神障碍提供了诊断标准，提高了信度和沟通效率。

Phobias are characterised by excessive fear and avoidance of specific objects or situations. The behavioural approach explains phobias through classical conditioning (acquisition) and operant conditioning (maintenance). Systematic desensitisation and flooding are behaviourally based treatments, while cognitive approaches address irrational fears.

恐惧症的特征是对特定物体或情境的过度恐惧和回避。行为取向通过经典条件反射 (习得) 和操作性条件反射 (维持) 解释恐惧症。系统脱敏和暴露疗法是基于行为的治疗，而认知取向则处理非理性恐惧。

Drug therapy for disorders such as depression often targets neurotransmitters. SSRIs increase serotonin levels in the synapse to alleviate depressive symptoms. Cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) aims to change maladaptive thought patterns and behaviours, challenging Beck’s negative triad and encouraging behavioural activation.

针对抑郁症等障碍的药物治疗常以神经递质为目标。SSRIs 增加突触中的血清素水平以缓解抑郁症状。认知行为疗法 (CBT) 旨在改变适应不良的思维模式和行为，挑战贝克的负性认知三联并鼓励行为激活。

---

9. Health Psychology | 健康心理学

Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) describes the body’s response to prolonged stress in three stages: alarm reaction (fight-or-flight), resistance (coping attempts), and exhaustion (resources depleted, increasing vulnerability to illness). The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis plays a central role in this stress response.

Selye 的一般适应综合征 (GAS) 将身体对长期压力的反应描述为三个阶段：警觉反应 (战斗或逃跑)、抵抗 (应对尝试) 和衰竭 (资源耗尽，对疾病的易感性增加)。下丘脑-垂体-肾上腺 (HPA) 轴在此压力反应中起核心作用。

Life changes and daily hassles are both significant sources of stress. The Social Readjustment Rating Scale (Holmes and Rahe) quantifies life change units and has been linked to illness. However, daily hassles, such as traffic or arguments, may be better predictors of health outcomes because of their cumulative effect.

生活事件和日常困扰都是压力的重要来源。社会再适应评定量表 (Holmes 和 Rahe) 量化了生活变化单位，并与疾病相关联。然而，日常困扰如交通堵塞或争吵可能因其累积效应而更能预测健康结果。

Coping strategies are broadly classified as problem-focused (addressing the source of stress directly) or emotion-focused (regulating the emotional response to stress). Social support acts as a buffer against stress, while perceived control is associated with better psychological adjustment and healthier behaviours.

应对策略大致分为专注于问题 (直接处理压力源) 和专注于情绪 (调节对压力的情绪反应)。社会支持作为对抗压力的缓冲，而知觉控制与更好的心理调整和更健康的行为相关。

---

10. Ethical Issues in Psychology | 心理学中的伦理问题

The British Psychological Society (BPS) Code of Ethics and Conduct sets out principles including respect, competence, responsibility, and integrity. In research, specific guidelines cover informed consent, the avoidance of deception, protection from harm, confidentiality, and the right to withdraw at any time.

英国心理学会 (BPS) 的伦理行为准则规定了尊重、能力、责任和正直等原则。在研究方面，具体指南涵盖知情同意、避免欺骗、免于伤害、保密以及随时退出的权利。

Deception should only be used when scientifically justified and when no alternative procedures are available. A full debriefing must follow, explaining the true nature of the study, addressing any misconceptions, and ensuring that participants leave without distress. Cost-benefit analyses are often conducted by ethics committees to weigh the scientific value against potential risks.

欺骗只有在具有科学合理性且无替代方案时才可使用。随后必须进行充分的事后解释，说明研究的真实目的，澄清误解，并确保参与者无痛苦离开。伦理委员会常进行成本-收益分析，以权衡科学价值与潜在风险。

The use of non-human animals in psychological research raises ethical concerns about speciesism and sentience. Researchers must apply the 3Rs (Replacement, Reduction, Refinement) and consider Bateson’s decision cube, which evaluates the certainty of benefit, quality of research, and degree of animal suffering. Only studies with high benefit and low suffering are considered justifiable.

在心理学研究中使用非人类动物引发了关于物种歧视和感知能力的伦理关切。研究者必须应用 3R 原则 (替代、减少、优化) 并考虑 Bateson 决策立方体，该立方体评估受益确定性、研究质量以及动物痛苦程度。只有高收益且低痛苦的研究才被视为合理。

---

Published by TutorHao | Psychology Revision Series | aleveler.com

更多咨询请联系16621398022（同微信）