Pre-U AQA Psychology: Vocabulary & Terminology Quick Memorisation Guide | Pre-U AQA 心理学：词汇术语速记指南

📚 Pre-U AQA Psychology: Vocabulary & Terminology Quick Memorisation Guide | Pre-U AQA 心理学：词汇术语速记指南

Mastering the language of psychology is half the battle in achieving a top grade at Pre-U level. This revision guide distils the essential terminology from the AQA specification into bite-sized, bilingual definitions, complete with memory hooks and clear examples. Whether you are preparing for essays, short-answer questions, or research methods components, these pairs will help you recall terms accurately and apply them with confidence.

掌握心理学的语言是获得 Pre-U 高分的关键之一。这份复习指南将 AQA 考纲中的核心术语提炼为简短的中英双语定义，并配有记忆技巧和清晰的示例。无论你是在准备论述题、简答题还是研究方法板块，这些术语配对都能帮助你精准回忆并自信运用。

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1. Research Methods Essentials | 研究方法核心术语

Aim – A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate, outlining the purpose of the study without predicting an outcome.

研究目的 – 研究者打算探究的内容的一般性陈述，概述研究的目的而不预测结果。

Hypothesis – A precise, testable prediction about the expected outcome of a study. It can be directional (one-tailed) or non-directional (two-tailed).

假设 – 关于研究预期结果的精确、可检验的预测。可以是方向性假设（单尾）或非方向性假设（双尾）。

Independent variable (IV) – The factor that is manipulated or changed by the researcher to observe its effect on the dependent variable. It is the ’cause’ in the cause–effect relationship.

自变量 (IV) – 研究者操纵或改变的因素，以观察其对因变量的影响。它是因果关系中的“因”。

Dependent variable (DV) – The factor that is measured by the researcher; it is the ‘effect’ that may change as a result of manipulating the IV.

因变量 (DV) – 研究者测量的因素；它是可能由于操纵自变量而发生变化的“果”。

Operationalisation – The process of clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured or manipulated. For example, ‘aggression’ could be operationalised as the number of times a child hits a doll.

操作化 – 根据变量如何被测量或操纵来清晰定义变量的过程。例如，“攻击性”可被操作化为一个孩子击打玩偶的次数。

Memory hook: ‘AIM high, HYPOTHESISE precisely, then OPERATIONALLY define your IV and DV.’

记忆技巧：“AIM 定方向，HYPOTHESISE 精准预测，再将 IV 和 DV 操作化定义。”

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2. Variables and Controls | 变量与控制

Extraneous variable (EV) – Any variable other than the IV that might affect the DV if not controlled. These include participant variables, situational variables, and experimenter effects.

额外变量 (EV) – 除自变量外任何可能影响因变量（如果未加控制）的变量，包括参与者变量、情境变量和实验者效应。

Confounding variable – A type of extraneous variable that varies systematically with the IV, making it impossible to determine whether the IV truly caused any change in the DV.

混淆变量 – 一种与自变量系统性共变的额外变量，使人无法确定自变量的改变是否真正引起了因变量的变化。

Demand characteristics – Cues in an experiment that allow participants to guess the purpose of the study, potentially leading them to alter their natural behaviour.

需求特征 – 实验中让参与者能猜测研究目的的线索，可能导致他们改变自然行为。

Investigator effects – Any influence the researcher may have on the DV, whether conscious or unconscious, such as body language, tone of voice, or expectation bias.

研究者效应 – 研究者对因变量的任何有意识或无意识影响，如肢体语言、语调或期待偏差。

Randomisation – The use of chance methods to assign participants to conditions or to order stimulus materials, helping to minimise the impact of bias.

随机化 – 使用随机方法分配参与者到不同条件或安排刺激材料顺序，以帮助减少偏差的影响。

Memory hook: ‘Confounding variable CO-VARIES, while extraneous just INTERFERES.’

记忆技巧：“混淆变量会共变，额外变量只是干扰。”

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3. Experimental Designs | 实验设计

Independent groups design – Different participants are allocated to each condition of the experiment. This avoids order effects but may introduce participant variables.

独立组设计 – 不同的参与者被分配到实验的各个条件。此设计可避免顺序效应，但可能引入参与者变量。

Repeated measures design – The same participants take part in all conditions. This controls for participant variables but creates the risk of order effects.

重复测量设计 – 相同的参与者参与所有条件。此设计能控制参与者变量，但会产生顺序效应的风险。

Matched pairs design – Participants are paired on key characteristics relevant to the study, and then one member of each pair is assigned to each condition. This balances participant variables and avoids order effects, though matching is never perfect.

配对组设计 – 参与者根据与研究相关的关键特征进行配对，然后每对中的一名被分配到不同条件。这平衡了参与者变量并避免了顺序效应，尽管匹配难以做到完美。

Order effects – Changes in performance resulting from the order in which tasks are presented, such as practice effects (improvement) or fatigue effects (decline).

顺序效应 – 由任务呈现顺序引起的表现变化，如练习效应（进步）或疲劳效应（退步）。

Counterbalancing – A technique used in repeated measures designs to combat order effects, where half the participants experience condition A then B, and the other half experience B then A.

对抗平衡 – 在重复测量设计中用于对抗顺序效应的技术，让一半参与者先经历条件A再B，另一半先B再A。

Memory hook: ‘Independent groups = Different People; Repeated measures = Same People; Matched pairs = Similar People.’

记忆技巧：“独立组 = 不同人；重复测量 = 同一批人；配对组 = 相似的人。”

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4. Reliability and Validity | 信度与效度

Internal reliability – The extent to which a test or measure is consistent within itself. For example, split-half reliability checks whether two halves of a questionnaire produce similar scores.

内部信度 – 一项测试或测量自身内部的一致程度。例如，分半信度检验问卷的两半是否产生相似的分数。

External reliability – The extent to which a test produces consistent results over time. Test-retest reliability is a common measure: administering the same test to the same participants on two occasions and correlating the scores.

外部信度 – 测试在不同时间产生一致结果的程度。重测信度是常用指标：对同一批参与者在两个时间点进行相同测试并计算相关。

Internal validity – The degree to which a study genuinely demonstrates a causal relationship between the IV and DV, free from confounding variables.

内部效度 – 研究真正证明自变量与因变量之间因果关系的程度，不受混淆变量的干扰。

External validity – The extent to which findings can be generalised beyond the specific study context, including population validity and ecological validity.

外部效度 – 研究结果推广到特定研究情境之外的程度，包括人口效度和生态效度。

Face validity – A superficial type of validity that assesses whether a measure appears, at face value, to test what it claims to test.

表面效度 – 一种表层效度，评估一个测量工具在表面上看起来是否测量了它声称要测量的内容。

Memory hook: ‘Reliability = Repeatability; Validity = Truthfulness.’

记忆技巧：“信度看可重复性，效度看真实性。”

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5. Sampling and Participants | 抽样与参与者

Target population – The entire group of individuals from which a sample may be drawn and to whom the researcher wishes to generalise the findings.

目标人群 – 研究者希望从中抽取样本并将研究结果推广到的整个个体群体。

Random sampling – Every member of the target population has an equal chance of selection. This method reduces bias but can be time-consuming and may still produce an unrepresentative sample by chance.

随机抽样 – 目标人群中的每个成员都有均等的被选中机会。该方法能减少偏差，但耗时，且可能因偶然性产生不具代表性的样本。

Opportunity sampling – The researcher selects participants who are readily available and willing to take part. It is quick and convenient but prone to researcher bias and lacks representativeness.

便利抽样 – 研究者选择那些易于找到且愿意参与的人。此方法快捷方便，但容易产生研究者偏见且缺乏代表性。

Stratified sampling – The population is divided into subgroups (strata) based on relevant characteristics, and participants are randomly selected from each stratum in proportion to their occurrence in the population.

分层抽样 – 根据相关特征将总体划分为子群（层），然后从每一层中按其在总体中的比例随机抽取参与者。

Volunteer (self-selected) sampling – Participants choose to take part, often in response to an advertisement. This may attract a certain type of motivated individual, leading to a volunteer bias.

志愿者抽样（自选抽样） – 参与者主动选择参与，通常通过广告招募。这可能吸引特定类型的积极性高的个体，导致志愿者偏差。

Memory hook: ‘STRATIFIED = STRATA + RANDOM; the only truly representative method if done correctly.’

记忆技巧：“分层抽样 = 分层 + 随机；如果操作正确，唯一真正具有代表性的方法。”

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6. Ethical Considerations | 伦理考量

Informed consent – Participants must be given comprehensive information about the study’s aims, procedures, and their rights so they can make an educated decision about whether to take part.

知情同意 – 参与者必须获得关于研究目的、程序及其权利的全面信息，以便他们能在知情后决定是否参与。

Deception – Researchers should avoid deliberately misleading participants; if deception is necessary for the integrity of the study, it must be justified and a thorough debrief must follow.

欺骗 – 研究者应避免故意误导参与者；如果欺骗是研究完整性的需要，则必须提供正当理由并在事后进行充分的情况说明。

Protection from harm – Participants should not experience physical or psychological harm greater than what they would encounter in everyday life. This includes safeguarding their self-esteem and emotional wellbeing.

免受伤害 – 参与者不应遭受超过日常生活的身体或心理伤害，包括保护其自尊和情绪健康。

Right to withdraw – Participants must be informed that they can leave the study at any time, without penalty, and may also request that their data be destroyed.

退出权利 – 必须告知参与者他们可以在任何时候退出研究而不受惩罚，并可要求销毁其数据。

Confidentiality – Personal information about participants must be protected; data should be anonymized so individuals cannot be identified from the published report.

保密性 – 参与者的个人信息必须受到保护；数据应匿名化，使个体无法从发表的报告中识别。

Memory hook: ‘Can Do Can’t Participants’ – Consent, Deception, Confidentiality, Protection. The BPS code of ethics at a glance.’

记忆技巧：“知退免保密” – 知情同意、欺骗、保密、保护与退出权利。英国心理学会伦理准则速记。

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7. Data and Inferential Statistics | 数据与推断统计

Quantitative data – Numerical data that can be analysed statistically, such as scores on a memory test or reaction times.

定量数据 – 可以进行统计分析的数值型数据，如记忆测试分数或反应时。

Qualitative data – Non-numerical data expressed in words, such as transcripts from open-ended interviews or diary entries.

定性数据 – 用文字表达的非数值型数据，如开放性访谈笔录或日记内容。

Type I error – A false positive: rejecting the null hypothesis when it is actually true. The probability of a Type I error is determined by the significance level (e.g., p < 0.05 means a 5% risk).

第一类错误 – 假阳性：当零假设实际上为真时拒绝了它。第一类错误的概率由显著性水平决定（例如，p < 0.05 表示 5% 的风险）。

Type II error – A false negative: failing to reject the null hypothesis when it is false. This often occurs when the sample size is too small or the effect is subtle.

第二类错误 – 假阴性：当零假设为假时未能拒绝它。这通常发生在样本量过小或效应微弱的情况下。

p-value – A measure of the probability that the observed results could have occurred by chance, if the null hypothesis were true. In psychology, p ≤ 0.05 is commonly adopted as the threshold for significance.

p 值 – 在零假设为真的条件下，观察到的结果纯粹由偶然因素造成的概率。心理学中通常以 p ≤ 0.05 作为显著性的临界值。

Memory hook: ‘Type I – You see a Ghost that is not there. Type II – You miss a Ghost that is there.’

记忆技巧：“第一类错误：无鬼喊有鬼；第二类错误：有鬼没看见。”

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8. Memory Key Terms | 记忆关键术语

Sensory register – The initial, fleeting store of sensory information, with separate stores for iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory) input. Duration is less than half a second for visual information.

感觉登记 – 感觉信息最初、短暂的储存，包括图像记忆（视觉）和声象记忆（听觉）两个独立部分。视觉信息的持续时间少于半秒。

Short-term memory (STM) – A temporary store with a limited capacity of 7±2 items and a duration of about 18–30 seconds without rehearsal. Information is coded mainly acoustically.

短时记忆 (STM) – 一个容量有限（7±2 个项目）且无复述时持续约 18-30 秒的暂时储存。信息主要以听觉编码。

Long-term memory (LTM) – A potentially permanent store with unlimited capacity. Coding tends to be semantic. It includes episodic, semantic, and procedural memories.

长时记忆 (LTM) – 一个容量无限且可能永久储存的系统。编码倾向于语义化，包括情景记忆、语义记忆和程序性记忆。

Episodic memory – Personal memories of specific events, including contextual details like time and place. These are ‘time-stamped’ and require conscious effort to recall.

情景记忆 – 对特定事件的个人记忆，包含时间和地点等背景细节。这些记忆带有“时间标记”，需要有意识地回忆。

Semantic memory – Shared knowledge of facts, concepts, and meanings about the world, independent of personal experience. Example: knowing that Paris is the capital of France.

语义记忆 – 关于世界的事实、概念和意义的共享知识，独立于个人经验。例如：知道巴黎是法国的首都。

Procedural memory – Memory for skills and actions, such as riding a bicycle or playing the piano. These are unconscious and automatic, often difficult to explain verbally.

程序性记忆 – 对技能和动作的记忆，如骑自行车或弹钢琴。此类记忆是无意识且自动化的，通常难以用语言解释。

Memory hook: ‘Episodic = Events, Semantic = Facts, Procedural = Skills.’

记忆技巧：“情景记事件，语义记知识，程序记技能。”

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9. Attachment and Development | 依恋与发展

Attachment – A strong, enduring emotional bond between an infant and a primary caregiver, characterised by a desire to maintain proximity and showing distress upon separation.

依恋 – 婴儿与主要照顾者之间强烈而持久的情感纽带，其特征是渴望保持亲近并在分离时表现出痛苦。

Secure attachment – A healthy attachment style where the infant shows moderate distress when the caregiver leaves but is easily soothed upon return, using the caregiver as a safe base for exploration.

安全型依恋 – 一种健康的依恋类型，婴儿在照顾者离开时表现出适度痛苦，但重新见面时容易被安抚，并能将照顾者作为探索的安全基地。

Insecure-avoidant attachment – The infant shows little reaction to the caregiver’s departure or return, often ignoring them. This may result from a caregiver who is consistently insensitive or rejecting.

不安全-回避型依恋 – 婴儿对照顾者的离开或返回都表现出很小的反应，常常忽视对方。这可能源于照顾者一贯不敏感或拒绝的态度。

Insecure-resistant attachment – The infant is intensely distressed at separation and is both comfort-seeking and resistant to comfort upon reunion, displaying clingy yet angry behaviour.

不安全-抵抗型依恋 – 婴儿在分离时极度痛苦，重聚时既寻求安慰又抗拒安慰，表现出黏人但愤怒的行为。

Internal working model – A mental representation formed from the first attachment relationship, providing a template for future relationships. A secure first attachment promotes positive expectations of others.

内部工作模型 – 由第一次依恋关系形成的心理表征，为未来人际关系提供模板。安全的第一段依恋会促使个体对他人产生积极的期待。

Memory hook: ‘Secure = Safe base; Avoidant = Ignores; Resistant = Clings & Fights.’

记忆技巧：“安全型：安全基地；回避型：忽视不理；抵抗型：又黏又闹。”

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10. Social Influence | 社会影响

Conformity – A change in an individual’s behaviour or beliefs as a result of real or imagined group pressure. Types include compliance, identification, and internalisation.

从众 – 由于真实或想象到的群体压力而导致个体行为或信念的改变。类型包括顺从、认同和内化。

Compliance – Publicly going along with the group while privately maintaining one’s original opinion; the shallowest form of conformity, driven by normative social influence.

顺从 – 公开跟随群体行为但私下保持原有观点；最表层的从众，由规范社会影响驱动。

Internalisation – A deep type of conformity where an individual accepts the group norms as their own, both publicly and privately. This often involves informational social influence.

内化 – 一种深度的从众，个体将群体规范内化为自己的观点，无论是在公开或私下场合。通常涉及信息性社会影响。

Obedience – Following a direct order or command from an authority figure. Milgram’s study demonstrated that ordinary people can commit destructive acts under authority’s instruction.

服从 – 遵从权威人物直接的命令。米尔格拉姆的研究表明，普通人在权威指令下可能做出破坏性行为。

Normative social influence (NSI) – Conforming to be liked and accepted by a group, to avoid rejection. It leads to compliance but often leaves private views unchanged.

规范社会影响 (NSI) – 为了被群体喜欢和接纳、避免被排斥而从众。它导致顺从，但通常不改变私下观点。

Informational social influence (ISI) – Conforming because we believe others have more knowledge about the correct behaviour, especially in ambiguous situations. It leads to internalisation.

信息性社会影响 (ISI) – 因为相信他人更了解正确行为而从众，尤其在模糊情境中。它会导致内化。

Memory hook: ‘NSI = Need to be liked; ISI = Need to be right.’

记忆技巧：“NSI 为求喜欢，ISI 为求正确。”

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11. Psychopathology | 心理病理学

Deviation from social norms – A definition of abnormality based on behaviour that violates the accepted implicit or explicit rules of a society. What is ‘normal’ varies across cultures and eras.

偏离社会规范 – 一种基于行为违反社会公认的显性或隐性规则来定义异常的标准。“正常”的定义因文化和时代而异。

Failure to function adequately – According to Rosenhan & Seligman, a person is abnormal if they cannot cope with the demands of day-to-day life, showing signs such as personal distress, unpredictability, and observer discomfort.

功能运作不良 – 根据罗森汉和塞利格曼的观点，如果个体无法应对日常生活要求，表现出个人痛苦、不可预测性及观察者不适等迹象，则可被视为异常。

Deviation from ideal mental health – Proposed by Jahoda, this definition focuses on the absence of positive criteria such as self-actualisation, accurate perception of reality, and autonomy. To be abnormal is to lack these attributes.

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