📚 IGCSE CAIE Philosophy: Key Terminology Memory Guide | IGCSE CAIE 哲学：词汇术语速记指南
This guide groups the most commonly examined IGCSE Philosophy terms into logical clusters. Each pairing gives the English definition first, followed by the Chinese equivalent, so you can memorise both the exam vocabulary and the underlying concept.
本指南将 IGCSE 哲学最常见的考点术语按逻辑分组。每个要点先给出英文定义，紧接中文对应内容，帮助你同时记住考试词汇和核心概念。
1. Arguments, Premises and Conclusions | 论证、前提与结论
In philosophy, an argument is not a quarrel. It is a set of statements in which some statements are offered as reasons to support another statement.
在哲学中，论证不是争吵。它是一组陈述，其中部分陈述作为理由来支持另一个陈述。
A premise is a supporting reason in an argument. The conclusion is the claim that the argument is trying to establish.
前提是论证中起支持作用的理由。结论是论证试图确立的主张。
Premises are often signalled by words such as ‘since’, ‘because’ and ‘given that’. Conclusions are often signalled by ‘therefore’, ‘thus’, ‘hence’ and ‘so’.
前提常用 ‘since’、’because’、’given that’ 等词提示。结论常用 ‘therefore’、’thus’、’hence’、’so’ 等词提示。
- Premise = a reason given in support of a conclusion | 前提 = 支持结论的理由
- Conclusion = the main claim the writer wants you to accept | 结论 = 作者希望你接受的主要主张
- Inference = the move from premises to conclusion | 推理 = 从前提推出结论的过程
2. Deduction and Induction | 演绎与归纳
A deductive argument aims to make the conclusion certain if the premises are true. If the logical structure guarantees the conclusion, the argument is deductively valid.
演绎论证的目标是：如果前提为真，结论必然为真。如果逻辑结构保证了结论，该论证就是演绎有效的。
An inductive argument aims to make the conclusion probable, not certain. It typically moves from observed cases to a general claim or prediction.
归纳论证的目标是使结论具有可能性，而非确定性。它通常从已观察的实例推出一般性主张或预测。
Example of deduction: All humans are mortal; Socrates is a human; therefore Socrates is mortal. Example of induction: Every observed swan has been white; therefore all swans are probably white.
演绎示例：所有人都会死；苏格拉底是人；因此苏格拉底会死。归纳示例：迄今观察到的所有天鹅都是白色的；因此所有天鹅很可能都是白色的。
- Deduction = conclusion is guaranteed by premises | 演绎 = 结论由前提必然保证
- Induction = conclusion is supported with probability | 归纳 = 结论得到可能性支持
3. A Priori and A Posteriori | 先验与后验
A priori knowledge is justified independently of sense experience, for example 2 + 2 = 4. You do not need to observe the world to know it.
先验知识的辩护不依赖感官经验，例如 2 + 2 = 4。你不需要观察世界就能知道它。
A posteriori knowledge depends on experience or empirical evidence, for example ‘the kettle is boiling’. You must observe or test the world to know it.
后验知识依赖经验或经验证据，例如 ‘水壶正在沸腾’。你必须观察或检验世界才能知道它。
In epistemology questions, identify whether a claim is known through reason alone or through observation.
在认识论题目中，要判断一个命题是通过理性单独得知，还是通过观察得知。
- A priori = before experience, known by reason | 先验 = 先于经验，靠理性得知
- A posteriori = after experience, known by observation | 后验 = 后于经验，靠观察得知
4. Validity, Soundness and Fallacies | 有效性、可靠性与谬误
Validity is about logical form. In a valid deductive argument, if the premises are true, the conclusion cannot be false. Validity does not require the premises to be actually true.
有效性关乎逻辑形式。在一个有效的演绎论证中，如果前提为真，结论不可能为假。有效性并不要求前提实际上为真。
Soundness is validity plus true premises. A sound argument is a valid argument whose premises are all true; therefore its conclusion must be true.
可靠性是有效性加上前提为真。一个可靠的论证是前提全部为真的有效论证；因此其结论必然为真。
A fallacy is a common but faulty pattern of reasoning. Examples include ad hominem, straw man, false dilemma and begging the question.
谬误是一种常见但有缺陷的推理模式。例子包括人身攻击、稻草人、错误两难和乞题。
- Valid = if premises true, conclusion must be true | 有效 = 如果前提为真，结论必然为真
- Sound = valid + all premises actually true | 可靠 = 有效 + 所有前提实际上为真
- Fallacy = flawed reasoning that appears persuasive | 谬误 = 看似有说服力但有缺陷的推理
5. Empiricism and Rationalism | 经验主义与理性主义
Empiricism claims that the main source of knowledge is sense experience. John Locke argued that the mind begins as a blank slate, or tabula rasa.
经验主义主张知识的主要来源是感官经验。约翰·洛克认为心灵最初是一块白板。
Rationalism claims that reason is the primary source of knowledge. Some rationalists argue that certain concepts or principles are innate, such as our idea of causation or mathematical truths.
理性主义主张理性是知识的主要来源。一些理性主义者认为某些概念或原则是天赋的，例如因果观念或数学真理。
Key thinkers often appear in exam questions: Locke and Hume for empiricism; Descartes and Plato for rationalism.
考试题中常出现的关键思想家：经验主义代表有洛克和休谟；理性主义代表有笛卡尔和柏拉图。
- Empiricism = knowledge comes from the senses | 经验主义 = 知识来自感官
- Rationalism = knowledge comes from reason | 理性主义 = 知识来自理性
6. Mind and Body: Dualism and Materialism | 心灵与身体：二元论与唯物主义
Dualism holds that mind and body are distinct substances. The mental is non-physical, while the body is physical. Descartes is the classic dualist.
二元论认为心灵和身体是两种不同的实体。心理是非物质的，而身体是物质的。笛卡尔是典型的二元论者。
Materialism, also called physicalism, holds that only physical matter exists. Mental states are brain states or functions of the body.
唯物主义，又称物理主义，认为只有物质存在。心理状态是大脑状态或身体的功能。
The problem of interaction asks how a non-physical mind can cause physical actions if mind and body are fundamentally different. This is a standard weakness of dualism.
互动问题问的是：如果非物质的灵魂与物质身体根本不同，它如何能引起身体动作。这是二元论的一个标准弱点。
- Dualism = mind and body are separate | 二元论 = 心灵与身体分离
- Materialism = mind is physical or bodily | 唯物主义 = 心灵是物质的或身体的
7. Free Will and Determinism | 自由意志与决定论
Free will is the ability to choose between genuine alternatives such that we can be held morally responsible for our actions.
自由意志是在真正不同的选项之间作出选择的能力，因此我们能为自己的行为承担道德责任。
Determinism claims that every event, including human choices, is caused by prior events and natural laws. Hard determinism says free will is therefore an illusion.
决定论主张每个事件，包括人的选择，都是由先前事件和自然规律引起的。强决定论认为自由意志因此是一种幻觉。
Compatibilism says free will can coexist with determinism because free choices are those caused by our own desires and beliefs without external force. Libertarianism says free will is incompatible with determinism and that we do have free will.
相容论认为自由意志可以与决定论共存，因为自由选择是由我们自己的欲望和信念引起且没有外部强制的选择。自由意志论认为自由意志与决定论不相容，而且我们确实拥有自由意志。
- Free will = ability to choose otherwise | 自由意志 = 本可另作选择的能力
- Determinism = all events are caused | 决定论 = 所有事件都有其原因
- Compatibilism = free will and determinism can fit together | 相容论 = 自由意志与决定论可以相容
8. Ethics: Consequentialism, Deontology and Virtue | 伦理学：后果论、义务论与德性
Consequentialism judges actions by their outcomes. Utilitarianism is the best-known version: the right action is the one that produces the greatest happiness for the greatest number.
后果论根据行为的结果来评判行为。功利主义是最著名的版本：正当的行为是能为最大多数人带来最大幸福的行为。
Deontology judges actions by duty, rules or intentions, not consequences. Kant’s categorical imperative is a deontological test: act only according to a maxim that you can will as a universal law.
义务论根据义务、规则或意图而非后果来评判行为。康德的绝对命令是义务论的检验标准：只按你愿意它成为普遍法则的准则行动。
Virtue ethics focuses on character and virtues, such as courage, honesty and temperance, rather than on individual acts or consequences. Aristotle is the key thinker.
德性伦理关注品格和德性，如勇气、诚实和节制，而不是单个行为或后果。亚里士多德是关键思想家。
- Consequentialism = look at outcomes | 后果论 = 看结果
- Deontology = look at duty and rules | 义务论 = 看义务与规则
- Virtue ethics = look at character | 德性伦理 = 看品格
9. Moral Relativism and Absolutism | 道德相对主义与绝对主义
Moral relativism claims that moral judgements are true or false only relative to a culture, society or individual. There are no universal moral standards.
道德相对主义主张道德判断只在特定文化、社会或个体背景下才为真或为假。不存在普遍的道德标准。
Moral absolutism claims that at least some moral rules are universally binding, regardless of culture or opinion, such as ‘do not murder’.
道德绝对主义主张至少有些道德规则是普遍有效的，无论文化或意见如何，例如 ‘不可杀人’。
Exam questions often ask you to weigh the strengths and weaknesses of each view, especially when cultural practices conflict.
考试题常要求权衡两种观点的优缺点，尤其是当不同文化习俗发生冲突时。
- Relativism = morality depends on culture or perspective | 相对主义 = 道德取决于文化或视角
- Absolutism = some moral rules apply universally | 绝对主义 = 某些道德规则普遍适用
10. Philosophy of Religion: Key Terms | 宗教哲学：关键术语
Theism is belief in a personal God who created and sustains the world. Atheism denies that God exists. Agnosticism suspends judgement or claims that God’s existence is unknown.
有神论相信有位格的神创造并维系世界。无神论否认神存在。不可知论悬置判断或主张神的存在不可知。
Omnipotence means all-powerful; omniscience means all-knowing; omnibenevolence means perfectly good. These three attributes generate the logical problem of evil.
全能指拥有无限力量；全知指知道一切；全善指完全善良。这三个属性产生了逻辑上的恶的问题。
The design argument, cosmological argument and ontological argument are three classical arguments for God’s existence. Each uses a distinct kind of reasoning.
设计论、宇宙论和本体论是三个经典的神存在论证。每个论证使用不同类型的推理。
- Theism = belief in God | 有神论 = 相信神存在
- Atheism = denial of God’s existence | 无神论 = 否认神存在
- Agnosticism = suspension of judgement | 不可知论 = 悬置判断
11. Evil, Suffering and Theodicy | 恶、苦难与神义论
The logical problem of evil says the claims ‘God is omnipotent’, ‘God is omnibenevolent’ and ‘evil exists’ cannot all be true at the same time.
逻辑恶的问题说 ‘神全能’、’神全善’ 和 ‘恶存在’ 这三个命题不可能同时为真。
A theodicy is an attempt to justify God’s goodness despite the existence of evil. The free will defence argues that moral evil results from the misuse of free will, and free will is a greater good.
神义论是尽管恶存在仍为神的良善辩护的尝试。自由意志辩护认为道德恶源于误用自由意志，而自由意志是更大的善。
Natural evil refers to suffering caused by nature, such as earthquakes or disease. Moral evil refers to suffering caused by human choices, such as theft or violence.
自然恶指由自然造成的苦难，如地震或疾病。道德恶指由人的选择造成的苦难，如偷窃或暴力。
- Theodicy = defence of God despite evil | 神义论 = 尽管有恶仍为神辩护
- Natural evil = suffering from nature | 自然恶 = 来自自然的苦难
- Moral evil = suffering from human choices | 道德恶 = 来自人的选择的苦难
12. Quick Memory Table and Mnemonics
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