📚 IGCSE Cambridge Law: Formula and Theorem Quick Reference Handbook | IGCSE剑桥法律：公式定理速查手册
This quick reference handbook converts the key rules of Cambridge IGCSE Law into simple legal formulas. Each core topic is expressed as an equation or principle, allowing you to revise the structure of legal reasoning before the examination. For every formula, cross-reference the relevant cases and statutes from the syllabus.
本速查手册将剑桥 IGCSE 法律的核心规则转化为简洁的法律公式。每个核心主题都以方程式或原则表达，帮助你在考前复习法律推理的结构。对于每一个公式，请结合考纲中的相关判例和法规进行交叉复习。
1. How to Use This Legal Formula Handbook | 如何使用本法律公式速查手册
Think of a legal rule as a formula: conditions on the left produce a legal consequence on the right. When a question asks ‘advise X’ or ‘is Y liable’, first identify the area of law, then apply its formula step by step.
将法律规则视为公式：左侧的条件产生右侧的法律后果。当题目要求 ‘为 X 提供建议’ 或 ‘Y 是否须承担责任’ 时，先确定法律领域，然后逐步套用该领域的公式。
- English: In criminal law, use: actus reus + mens rea + causation − defence = liability.
- 中文：刑法中，使用：犯罪行为 + 犯罪意图 + 因果关系 − 抗辩理由 = 责任。
- English: In negligence, use: duty + breach + causation + damage = liability.
- 中文：过失侵权中，使用：注意义务 + 违反义务 + 因果关系 + 损害 = 责任。
- English: In contract, use: offer + acceptance + consideration + intention = enforceable contract.
- 中文：合同法中，使用：要约 + 承诺 + 对价 + 建立法律关系的意图 = 可执行合同。
Always check whether any defence cancels one element of the formula before reaching a conclusion.
在得出结论之前，务必检查是否存在任何抗辩理由抵消公式中的某一要素。
2. Sources and Hierarchy of Law | 法律渊源与效力层级
Legal authority follows a hierarchy. A superior court’s binding precedent overrides an inferior court; statute law overrides common law where Parliament is supreme.
法律权威遵循层级。上级法院的约束性先例优先于下级法院；在议会至上原则下，制定法优先于普通法。
- English: Statute law = Acts of Parliament, delegated legislation.
- 中文：制定法 = 议会法案、授权立法。
- English: Common law = judge-made rules from decided cases.
- 中文：普通法 = 法官在已决案件中形成的规则。
- English: Equity = rules developed to soften the harshness of common law.
- 中文：衡平法 = 为软化普通法的严苛而发展出的规则。
Formula: Higher authority + binding precedent = must follow; lower authority + persuasive precedent = may follow.
公式：上级权威 + 约束性先例 = 必须遵循；下级权威 + 说服性先例 = 可以遵循。
3. Criminal Liability Formula | 刑事责任公式
The core equation of criminal law is: Actus Reus + Mens Rea + Causation = Guilty, unless a defence applies.
刑法的核心等式为：犯罪行为 + 犯罪意图 + 因果关系 = 有罪，除非存在抗辩理由。
Criminal liability = Actus Reus + Mens Rea + Causation − Defence
刑事责任 = 犯罪行为 + 犯罪意图 + 因果关系 − 抗辩理由
- English: AR = the guilty act or omission; examples: taking property, striking victim.
- 中文：犯罪行为 = 有罪的行为或不作为；例如：取走财物、殴打受害者。
- English: MR = the guilty mind; examples: intention, recklessness, gross negligence.
- 中文：犯罪意图 = 有罪的心理；例如：故意、轻率、重大过失。
- English: Causation = link between act and consequence; factual and legal causation.
- 中文：因果关系 = 行为与后果之间的联系；包括事实因果和法律因果。
4. Actus Reus and Omissions | 犯罪行为与不作为
Actus reus includes conduct, circumstances and consequences. In result crimes, the prosecution must prove causation; in conduct crimes, proof of the prohibited act is enough.
犯罪行为包括行为、情节和后果。在结果犯中，控方必须证明因果关系；在行为犯中，只需证明被禁止的行为。
Omission formula: General rule = no liability for omission; exceptions = duty created by statute, contract, relationship, voluntary assumption of care, or creation of danger.
不作为公式：一般规则 = 不因不作为承担责任；例外 = 制定法、合同、关系、自愿承担照顾或制造危险所产生的义务。
Use causation formula: Factual causation = ‘but for’ test; Legal causation = substantial and operating cause.
使用因果关系公式：事实因果关系 = ‘若无则不’ 标准；法律因果关系 = 实质且仍在起作用的原因。
5. Mens Rea and Strict Liability | 犯罪意图与严格责任
Mens rea levels form a ladder, from highest blameworthiness to lowest: direct intention, oblique intention, recklessness, negligence. Direct intention means D wants the result; recklessness means D knows a risk and takes it unreasonably.
犯罪意图层级从最高可责性到最低：直接故意、间接故意、轻率、过失。直接故意指被告希望该结果发生；轻率指被告知道风险却不合理地冒险。
High MR + AR = most serious offence; low MR + AR = less serious offence; AR only = strict liability offence.
高犯罪意图 + 犯罪行为 = 最严重犯罪；低犯罪意图 + 犯罪行为 = 较轻犯罪；仅犯罪行为 = 严格责任犯罪。
- English: Strict liability: no mens rea required; examples: food hygiene, licensing offences.
- 中文：严格责任：无需犯罪意图；例如：食品卫生、许可类违法。
6. Tort of Negligence Formula | 过失侵权公式
Negligence liability requires four elements. Claimant must prove they were owed a duty, the defendant breached that duty, the breach caused damage, and the damage is not too remote.
过失侵权责任需要四个要件。原告必须证明被告对其负有注意义务、被告违反了该义务、违反行为造成损害且损害并非过于遥远。
Duty of care + Breach of standard + Causation + Non-remote damage = Negligence
注意义务 + 违反标准 + 因果关系 + 非过于遥远的损害 = 过失侵权
- English: Duty: neighbour principle; reasonable foreseeability; proximity; fair, just and reasonable.
- 中文：义务：邻人原则；合理可预见性；紧密关系；公平、公正和合理。
- English: Breach: objective standard of the reasonable person; factors include likelihood, seriousness, cost of precautions, social utility.
- 中文：违反：理性人的客观标准；因素包括可能性、严重性、预防成本和社会功用。
- English: Causation: ‘but for’ plus legal cause; remoteness: damage must be reasonably foreseeable.
- 中文：因果：’若无则不’ 加法律原因；遥远性：损害必须合理可预见。
7. Contract Formation Formula | 合同成立公式
A binding contract arises only when the essential elements are present. The formula is useful in offer and acceptance problem questions: identify each communication and classify it as invitation to treat, offer, counter-offer, revocation or acceptance.
只有具备基本要素，合同才具有约束力。该公式在要约与承诺问题中很有用：识别每一次通信并将其归类为要约邀请、要约、反要约、撤回或承诺。
Offer + Acceptance + Consideration + Intention + Capacity = Enforceable contract
要约 + 承诺 + 对价 + 意图 + 缔约能力 = 可执行合同
- English: Invitation to treat: advertisement, display of goods, price list, invitation to tender.
- 中文：要约邀请：广告、商品展示、价目表、招标邀请。
- English: Counter-offer destroys original offer; request for information does not.
- 中文：反要约消灭原要约；请求提供信息不会。
- English: Postal rule: acceptance by post effective when posted, not when received.
- 中文：邮寄规则：邮寄承诺在投寄时生效，而非收到时。
- English: Consideration must be sufficient but need not be adequate; past consideration not valid.
- 中文：对价必须充分但不必须对等；过去的对价无效。
8. Contract Terms and Remedies | 合同条款与救济
Terms are divided into conditions and warranties. Breach of condition entitles the innocent party to terminate and claim damages; breach of warranty gives damages only.
合同条款分为条件条款和担保条款。违反条件条款使守约方有权终止合同并索赔损失；违反担保条款只能索赔损失。
Breach of condition = termination + damages; breach of warranty = damages only.
违反条件条款 = 终止合同 + 损害赔偿；违反担保条款 = 仅损害赔偿。
- English: Express terms = those stated by parties; implied terms = introduced by statute, custom or court.
- 中文：明示条款 = 当事人明确约定的条款；默示条款 =
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