Apparatus and Reagents | 实验仪器与试剂

📚 Apparatus and Reagents | 实验仪器与试剂

In any chemistry laboratory, the correct choice and careful handling of apparatus and reagents form the foundation of safe and successful experimental work. For IGCSE Chemistry, students are expected to recognise standard equipment, understand its function, and handle common chemicals with appropriate care.

在任何化学实验室中，正确选择并谨慎操作仪器与试剂是安全且成功完成实验的基础。对于IGCSE化学，学生需要识别标准设备、理解其用途，并正确、谨慎地处理常见化学品。

1. Introduction to Apparatus and Reagents | 仪器与试剂概述

Apparatus refers to all tools and glassware used in experiments, while reagents are the chemicals that take part in reactions. Both must be matched to the requirements of the experiment, such as the scale, the temperature, and the nature of the substances involved.

仪器指实验中使用的所有工具和玻璃器皿，而试剂是参与反应的化学物质。两者都必须与实验要求相匹配，例如实验规模、温度以及所涉及物质的性质。

A clear understanding of apparatus names and reagent hazards allows students to plan experiments logically and interpret observation tables accurately in examinations.

清楚理解仪器名称和试剂危害，能帮助学生有条理地设计实验，并在考试中准确解读观察结果表。

2. Safety Equipment | 安全设备

Safety is the first priority in any laboratory. Essential safety apparatus includes eye protection, lab coats, heat-resistant gloves, and fire extinguishers. In some experiments, a fume cupboard is required to prevent toxic vapours from being inhaled.

在任何实验室中，安全始终是第一位的。基本安全设备包括护目镜、实验服、耐热手套和灭火器。在某些实验中，需要使用通风橱以防止吸入有毒蒸气。

Safety goggles protect the eyes from splashes and flying glass.

护目镜可保护眼睛免受液体飞溅和玻璃碎片的伤害。
A fume cupboard is used when releasing gases such as chlorine or hydrogen chloride.

当释放氯气或氯化氢等气体时，应使用通风橱。
Fire blankets and extinguishers must be visible and accessible at all times.

灭火毯和灭火器必须始终可见并易于取用。

3. Measuring Instruments: Volume and Mass | 测量仪器：体积与质量

Accurate measurement is central to chemistry. For measuring volume, students should choose between a measuring cylinder, a pipette, and a burette depending on the required precision. A balance is used for mass.

准确测量是化学的核心。测量体积时，学生应根据所需精度在量筒、移液管和滴定管之间做出选择。质量则使用天平测量。

A measuring cylinder measures approximate volumes, while a pipette or burette delivers exact volumes for quantitative analysis. The meniscus must be read at eye level to avoid parallax error.

量筒测量大致体积，而移液管或滴定管可量取定量分析所需的精确体积。读数时视线应与弯月面最低点平齐，以避免视差误差。

Reading error = ± half of the smallest division

读数误差 = ± 最小刻度的一半

4. Heating Apparatus | 加热设备

Heating is a common operation in chemistry. A Bunsen burner is widely used on a tripod with a gauze and a heatproof mat. A water bath provides gentle, uniform heating. An electric heater may be used when a flame is unsuitable.

加热是化学中的常见操作。本生灯通常与三脚架、石棉网和耐热垫配合使用。水浴提供温和均匀的加热。当不宜使用明火时，可使用电加热器。

The blue flame (air hole open) is hot, non-luminous and best for heating.

蓝色火焰（空气孔打开）温度高、无明亮光焰，最适合加热。
The yellow flame (air hole closed) is cooler and is used for lighting the burner.

黄色火焰（空气孔关闭）温度较低，用于点燃本生灯。
Glassware must not be heated when wet or cracked, and test tubes are heated at an angle in a flame.

湿的或破裂的玻璃器皿不得加热，试管应在火焰中倾斜加热。

5. Glassware and Containers | 玻璃器皿与容器

Different containers serve different purposes. Beakers are general mixing containers, conical flasks are suitable for swirling liquids, and test tubes are used for small-scale reactions. Volumetric flasks are used to prepare exact solution concentrations.

不同容器有不同的用途。烧杯用于一般混合，锥形瓶适合旋转液体，试管用于小规模反应。容量瓶用于配制精确浓度的溶液。

Round-bottom flasks are used in distillation, and crucibles are used for heating solids strongly. Each piece of glassware must be made of chemically resistant glass, usually borosilicate glass.

圆底烧瓶用于蒸馏，坩埚用于强热固体。每件玻璃器皿应由耐化学腐蚀的玻璃制成，通常为硼硅酸盐玻璃。

6. Common Reagents and Their Uses | 常见试剂及其用途

Chemical reagents are classified into acids, bases, salts, indicators, and oxidising or reducing agents. Dilute hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and nitric acid are common acids; sodium hydroxide and ammonia are common bases.

化学试剂分为酸、碱、盐、指示剂以及氧化剂或还原剂。稀盐酸、稀硫酸和稀硝酸是常见酸；氢氧化钠和氨是常见碱。

In qualitative analysis, reagents such as barium chloride solution (test for sulfate ions) and silver nitrate solution (test for halide ions) must be fresh and clearly labelled. Universal indicator is used to estimate pH.

在定性分析中，用于检验硫酸根离子的氯化钡溶液和用于检验卤离子的硝酸银溶液必须新鲜且标签清晰。万能指示剂用于估算pH值。

7. Gas Preparation and Collection | 气体的制备与收集

Many experiments involve preparing gases. The method of collection depends on the solubility and density of the gas. Insoluble gases are collected over water, while soluble or denser gases require downward or upward delivery.

许多实验涉及制备气体。收集方法取决于气体的溶解性和密度。难溶于水的气体可用排水集气法，可溶于水或密度较大的气体则需向下或向上排空气法。

Oxygen is collected over water because it is sparingly soluble.

氧气难溶于水，因此可用排水集气法收集。
Carbon dioxide is collected by upward delivery because it is denser than air.

二氧化碳密度比空气大，因此用向上排空气法收集。
Ammonia, being soluble and lighter than air, is collected by downward delivery.

氨气可溶于水且比空气轻，因此用向下排空气法收集。

8. Titration Apparatus | 滴定装置

Titration is a precise method for finding concentrations. The key apparatus are a burette, a pipette, a conical flask, and a white tile. A pipette delivers a fixed volume of solution, while the burette delivers the titrant in controlled increments.

滴定是测定浓度的精确方法。关键仪器包括滴定管、移液管、锥形瓶和白色瓷砖。移液管量取固定体积的溶液，滴定管则分次加入滴定剂。

Indicators must change colour sharply at the endpoint. During a titration, the burette reading is recorded to two decimal places, and the process is repeated until concordant results are obtained.

指示剂必须在终点时发生明显颜色变化。滴定过程中，滴定管读数记录到两位小数，并重复操作直至获得一致结果。

c₁V₁ = c₂V₂

9. Separation and Purification Techniques | 分离与纯化技术

Apparatus used for separation includes filter funnels, evaporating basins, separating funnels, and distillation sets. These tools help purify substances or isolate a product from a mixture.

用于分离的仪器包括漏斗、蒸发皿、分液漏斗和蒸馏装置。这些工具帮助纯化物质或将产物从混合物中分离出来。

Simple distillation uses a round-bottom flask, a condenser, and a receiver. Fractional distillation adds a fractionating column to separate liquids with close boiling points.

简单蒸馏使用圆底烧瓶、冷凝管和接收器。分馏增加一根分馏柱，用于分离沸点相近的液体。

10. Cleaning, Drying and Storage | 清洗、干燥与储存

Clean apparatus is essential for reliable results. After use, glassware should be rinsed with deionised water and dried in an oven or by rinsing with acetone. Reagents must be stored in tightly sealed, properly labelled bottles.

清洁的仪器对得到可靠结果至关重要。使用后，玻璃器皿应用去离子水冲洗，并用烘箱或丙酮冲洗干燥。试剂必须储存在密封良好、标签清晰的瓶子里。

Acids and alkalis must be stored separately. Oxidising agents must be kept away from flammable materials. Light-sensitive reagents are stored in brown (amber) bottles.

酸和碱必须分开储存。氧化剂必须远离易燃物。光敏试剂应储存在棕色瓶中。

11. Avoiding Contamination and Errors | 避免污染与误差

Contamination can ruin an experiment. Use a clean spatula for each solid reagent, and never return unused chemicals to their original bottles. Do not insert pipettes into reagent bottles; instead, pour the reagent into a small beaker first.

污染会毁掉整个实验。每种固体试剂应使用干净的药匙，切勿将未使用的化学品倒回原瓶。不要将移液管直接插入试剂瓶，而应先将试剂倒入小烧杯。

Systematic errors, such as a mis-calibrated balance, should be corrected by regular calibration. Parallax errors can be avoided by reading the meniscus at eye level. Always record all observations immediately, using correct units.

天平未校准等系统误差应通过定期校准来纠正。视差可通过平视弯月面来避免。所有观察结果应立即记录，并写上正确单位。

12. Conclusion | 结论

Mastery of apparatus and reagents is essential for practical chemistry. Familiarity with equipment names, correct usage, and chemical safety enables students to perform experiments confidently and answer practical-based examination questions accurately.

掌握仪器与试剂是化学实验的关键。熟悉设备名称、正确使用方法以及化学品安全，能帮助学生自信地进行实验，并准确回答以实验为基础的问题。

By reinforcing these laboratory fundamentals, students build a strong foundation for further study in chemistry and related sciences.

通过巩固这些实验室基本知识，学生可为后续的化学及相关科学研究奠定坚实基础。

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Apparatus and Reagents | 实验仪器与试剂