📚 IGCSE Chemistry: End-of-Term Revision Guide | IGCSE 化学：期末复习提纲
This end-of-term revision guide summarises the essential topics for IGCSE Chemistry, connecting key concepts and providing clear explanations to solidify your understanding. Use it to check your knowledge, identify weak areas, and focus your final preparation.
这份期末复习提纲总结了 IGCSE 化学的核心主题，将关键概念串联起来，并给出清晰的解释以巩固你的理解。用它来检查知识掌握情况，找出薄弱环节，并聚焦最后的备考。
1. States of Matter | 物质的状态
The kinetic particle theory explains matter in terms of moving particles. In solids, particles vibrate in fixed positions; in liquids, they move past each other; in gases, they move rapidly and randomly with large spaces between them.
动力学粒子理论用运动粒子来解释物质。固体中，粒子在固定位置振动；液体中，粒子相互滑过；气体中，粒子快速、无规则地运动，且间距很大。
Changes of state are physical reversals: melting, freezing, boiling, condensation, sublimation and deposition. At the melting or boiling point, the temperature remains constant while energy is used to overcome attractive forces.
状态变化是可逆的物理过程：熔化、凝固、沸腾、冷凝、升华和凝华。在熔点或沸点时，温度保持不变，因为能量用于克服粒子间的吸引力。
Diffusion is the net movement of particles from high concentration to low concentration. Heavier gases diffuse more slowly, and diffusion is fastest in gases.
扩散是粒子从高浓度区域向低浓度区域的净运动。较重气体扩散较慢，且扩散在气体中最快。
2. Atomic Structure | 原子结构
Atoms contain a tiny, dense nucleus of protons (charge +1) and neutrons (0), surrounded by electrons (−1) arranged in shells (energy levels). Atomic number Z equals the number of protons; mass number A equals protons plus neutrons.
原子包含一个微小、致密的原子核（内有质子，电荷+1，和中子，电荷0），核外有按壳层（能级）排列的电子（−1）。原子序数 Z 等于质子数；质量数 A 等于质子数与中子数之和。
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons. They have identical chemical properties but slightly different physical properties, e.g., chlorine-35 and chlorine-37.
同位素是同一元素具有不同中子数的原子。它们化学性质相同，但物理性质略有不同，例如氯‑35 和氯‑37。
The electronic configuration of the first 20 elements follows the 2.8.8 pattern. Valence electrons determine chemical behaviour and group assignment.
前 20 号元素的电子排布遵循 2.8.8 规律。价电子决定化学行为和所属主族。
3. The Periodic Table | 元素周期表
Elements are arranged by increasing atomic number. Periods are horizontal rows; groups are vertical columns. Elements in the same group share valence electron counts and similar reactivity.
元素按原子序数递增排列。周期是横行，族是纵列。同族元素具有相同的价电子数，化学反应性相似。
Group 1 alkali metals are soft, low-density, highly reactive metals with a single outer electron, forming 1⁺ ions. Reactivity increases down the group.
第 1 族碱金属是质软、密度低的活泼金属，最外层只有一个电子，形成 1⁺ 离子。反应性沿族向下递增。
Group 7 halogens are diatomic non‑metals (F₂, Cl₂, Br₂, I₂) with seven outer electrons, forming 1⁻ ions. Reactivity decreases down the group; a more reactive halogen displaces a less reactive one.
第 7 族卤素是双原子非金属（F₂、Cl₂、Br₂、I₂），最外层有七个电子，形成 1⁻ 离子。反应性沿族向下递减；较活泼的卤素能从盐溶液中置换较不活泼的卤素。
Group 8/0 noble gases are monatomic and unreactive due to a full outer shell. Their boiling points increase down the group.
第 8/0 族稀有气体是单原子分子，因最外层全满而极不活泼。其沸点沿族向下升高。
Transition metals are typical metals, often having variable oxidation states, forming coloured compounds, and acting as catalysts.
过渡金属是典型的金属，通常具有可变的氧化态，能形成有色化合物，并常用作催化剂。
4. Bonding and Structure | 化学键与结构
Ionic bonding occurs between metals and non‑metals via electron transfer, forming oppositely charged ions held by electrostatic attraction. Ionic compounds have giant lattice structures, high melting points, and conduct electricity when molten or aqueous.
离子键通过金属与非金属之间的电子转移形成，产生相反电荷的离子，靠静电引力结合。离子化合物具有巨型晶格，熔点高，在熔融或水溶液中能导电。
Covalent bonding involves sharing of electron pairs between non‑metal atoms. Simple molecular substances (e.g., H₂O, CO₂) have low melting points and do not conduct electricity. Giant covalent structures (diamond, graphite, silicon dioxide) have very high melting points; graphite conducts electricity due to delocalised electrons.
共价键是非金属原子间共享电子对。简单分子物质（如 H₂O、CO₂）熔沸点低，不导电。巨型共价结构（金刚石、石墨、二氧化硅）熔点极高；石墨因存在离域电子而能导电。
Metallic bonding is the attraction between positive metal ions and a sea of delocalised electrons. This gives metals high conductivity, malleability and ductility.
金属键是正金属离子与自由离域电子海之间的引力。这使得金属具有良好的导电性、延展性和可塑性。
5. Stoichiometry and the Mole | 化学计量与摩尔
Relative atomic mass (Aᵣ) is the average mass of an atom relative to 1/12 of carbon‑12. Relative molecular mass (Mᵣ) sums the Aᵣ values in the formula.
相对原子质量（Aᵣ）是原子的平均质量与碳‑12 原子质量的 1/12 之比。相对分子质量（Mᵣ）是化学式中所有 Aᵣ 的总和。
moles = mass (g) / molar mass (g/mol)
摩尔 = 质量（克）/ 摩尔质量（克/摩尔）
Empirical formula shows the simplest whole‑number ratio of atoms; molecular formula shows the actual number. Reacting masses can be predicted by setting up mole ratios from a balanced equation.
经验式表示原子最简整数比；分子式表示实际原子数。通过配平方程式中的摩尔比，可预测反应中物质的质量关系。
Percentage yield = (actual yield / theoretical yield) × 100. Concentration is often expressed in mol/dm³ (molarity) or g/dm³. The volume of one mole of gas at room temperature and pressure (r.t.p.) is approximately 24 dm³.
产率百分比 = (实际产量 / 理论产量) × 100。浓度常用 mol/dm³（摩尔浓度）或 g/dm³ 表示。在室温常压下，1 摩尔气体的体积约为 24 dm³。
6. Electrochemistry | 电化学
Electrolysis is the breakdown of an ionic compound when molten or in aqueous solution by passing direct current. The cathode attracts cations (reduction), and the anode attracts anions (oxidation).
电解是用直流电使熔融态或水溶液中的离子化合物分解的过程。阴极吸引阳离子（还原），阳极吸引阴离子（氧化）。
In aqueous electrolysis, the reactivity series determines discharge order: H⁺ is produced if the metal is more reactive than hydrogen; otherwise the metal is deposited. At the anode, a halide ion (if present) is discharged in preference to OH⁻.
在水溶液电解中，金属活动性顺序决定放电顺序：若金属比氢活泼，则生成氢气；否则金属析出。在阳极，如存在卤离子，优先于 OH⁻ 放电。
Electroplating uses electrolysis to coat one metal with a thin layer of another. A simple chemical cell consists of two different metals in an electrolyte, generating a voltage; the greater the difference in reactivity, the larger the voltage.
电镀是利用电解在一种金属表面沉积薄层另一种金属。简单化学电池由两种不同金属浸在电解质中组成，产生电压；金属活动性差越大，电压越大。
7. Energetics | 能量变化
Exothermic reactions release energy to the surroundings, raising temperature (e.g., combustion, neutralisation). Endothermic reactions absorb energy, lowering temperature (e.g., photosynthesis, dissolving ammonium nitrate).
放热反应向环境释放能量，使温度升高（如燃烧、中和反应）。吸热反应从环境吸收能量，使温度降低（如光合作用、溶解硝酸铵）。
ΔH = Σ bond energies (bonds broken) − Σ bond energies (bonds formed)
ΔH = 断裂键的键能总和 − 形成键的键能总和
Bond breaking is endothermic; bond making is exothermic. Energy level diagrams compare reactant and product energy. Activation energy is the minimum energy colliding particles must possess for a reaction to occur.
断裂化学键吸热，形成化学键放热。能级图比较反应物与产物的能量。活化能是碰撞粒子发生反应所必须具备的最低能量。
Catalysts provide an alternative pathway with lower activation energy, increasing reaction rate without being consumed.
催化剂提供活化能更低的替代反应路径，从而加快反应速率，而本身在化学反应前后保持不变。
8. Rates of Reaction | 反应速率
Collision theory states that particles must collide with sufficient energy (≥ activation energy) and correct orientation for a reaction to happen.
碰撞理论指出，粒子必须以足够的能量（≥ 活化能）和正确的取向碰撞，反应才能发生。
Factors increasing rate: higher concentration/pressure (more particles per volume), higher temperature (particles move faster and collide more often, with more energy), larger surface area (more exposed solid reactant), and use of a catalyst.
提高反应速率的因素：增大浓度或压强（单位体积粒子数更多），升高温度（粒子运动更快，碰撞更频繁且具有更高能量），增大固体表面积（更多反应物暴露），以及使用催化剂。
Rate can be measured by monitoring the change in mass, volume of gas evolved, colour change (using a colorimeter), or formation of a precipitate over time.
反应速率可通过测量质量变化、产生气体的体积、颜色变化（用比色计）或沉淀生成的时间来监测。
9. Chemical Equilibrium | 化学平衡
Reversible reactions reach dynamic equilibrium in a closed system when the rates of the forward and reverse reactions become equal. Macroscopic properties remain constant.
可逆反应在密闭系统中，当正反应与逆反应的速率相等时达到动态平衡。宏观性质保持不变。
Le Châtelier’s Principle: if a system at equilibrium is subjected to a change in concentration, temperature or pressure, the position of equilibrium shifts to counteract the change.
勒夏特列原理：若平衡系统受到浓度、温度或压强的改变，平衡位置会向削弱该改变的方向移动。
In the Haber process (N₂ + 3H₂ ⇌ 2NH₃), high pressure favours the forward reaction (fewer gas moles), but a compromise temperature (about 450 °C) balances rate and yield. The Contact process uses V₂O₅ catalyst for SO₂ → SO₃.
哈伯法（N₂ + 3H₂ ⇌ 2NH₃）中，高压有利于正反应（气体分子总数减少），但采用折中温度（约 450 °C）以平衡速率与产率。接触法用 V₂O₅ 催化剂将 SO₂ 转化为 SO₃。
10. Acids, Bases and Salts | 酸、碱和盐
Arrhenius acids produce H⁺ ions in water; bases produce OH⁻ ions. The pH scale (0–14) measures acidity: pH < 7 acidic, pH = 7 neutral, pH > 7 alkaline. Universal indicator shows gradual colour changes.
阿伦尼乌斯酸碱理论：酸在水中产生 H⁺ 离子，碱产生 OH⁻ 离子。pH 标度（0‑14）衡量酸碱度：pH < 7 酸性，pH = 7 中性，pH > 7 碱性。通用指示剂显示渐变色。
Neutralisation: H⁺ + OH⁻ → H₂O. Titration is used to determine the concentration of an acid or alkali using a burette, pipette and indicator.
中和反应：H⁺ + OH⁻ → H₂O。滴定法使用滴定管、移液管和指示剂来测定酸或碱的浓度。
Salts can be prepared by reacting an acid with a metal, an insoluble base, or an alkali. Soluble salts are obtained by crystallisation; insoluble salts by precipitation.
盐可通过酸与金属、不溶性碱或碱反应来制备。可溶性盐通过结晶获得；不溶性盐通过沉淀法获得。
11. Organic Chemistry | 有机化学
A homologous series is a family of organic compounds with the same general formula, similar chemical properties, and a gradation in physical properties. Each member differs by a CH₂ unit.
同系物是具有相同通式、相似化学性质且物理性质渐变的有机化合物家族。相邻成员相差一个 CH₂ 单元。
| Homologous Series | General Formula | Functional Group |
|---|---|---|
| Alkanes | CₙH₂ₙ₊₂ | C–C single bonds only |
| Alkenes | CₙH₂ₙ | C=C double bond |
| Alcohols | CₙH₂ₙ₊₁OH | –OH (hydroxyl) |
| Carboxylic acids | CₙH₂ₙ₊₁COOH | –COOH (carboxyl) |
Alkanes undergo combustion (complete and incomplete) and substitution with halogens. Alkenes undergo addition reactions (hydrogenation, hydration, halogenation) and serve as monomers for addition polymers like poly(ethene). Alcohols undergo oxidation to carboxylic acids and esterification with carboxylic acids to form esters (sweet-smelling).
烷烃发生燃烧（完全和不完全）以及与卤素的取代反应。烯烃发生加成反应（氢化、水合、卤化），并可作为加聚单体生成聚合物如聚乙烯。醇可被氧化为羧酸，并与羧酸发生酯化反应生成具有果香味的酯。
Addition polymers are formed from unsaturated monomers; condensation polymers (e.g., polyesters) form with the loss of a small molecule such as water. Nylon and Terylene are common condensation polymers.
加成聚合物由不饱和单体形成；缩合聚合物（如聚酯）在形成时会脱去小分子如水。尼龙和涤纶是常见的缩合聚合物。
12. Experimental Techniques and Exam Strategy | 实验技巧与应试策略
Common separation methods include filtration, crystallisation, simple distillation (for separating liquid from a dissolved solid), fractional distillation (for miscible liquids with different boiling points), and chromatography (using Rf values).
常见分离方法包括过滤、结晶、简单蒸馏（从溶液中分离液体）、分馏（分离不同沸点的互溶液体）和色谱法（利用 Rf 值）。
Always wear safety goggles, tie back long hair, and note the hazards of chemicals (corrosive, flammable, toxic). Read measurement scales carefully, taking readings at eye level.
始终佩戴护目镜，束好长发，并注意化学品危害（腐蚀性、易燃性、毒性）。仔细读取量具刻度，视线与液面水平。
In calculations, show all working clearly; use correct units; and check significant figures. For six‑mark questions, provide step‑by‑step logical reasoning and link to the underlying chemical principles.
计算题中，展示全部解题步骤，使用正确单位，并注意有效数字。六分大题需给出分步骤的逻辑推理，并联系背后的化学原理。
Manage your time: read all questions first, answer those you are confident about, and allocate time proportional to marks. Leave a few minutes at the end to check your answers.
合理安排时间：先浏览所有题目，先做有把握的，按分值分配时间。最后留几分钟检查答案。
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