📚 Year 7 CCEA Biology: Formula & Theorem Quick Reference Handbook | 7年级CCEA生物：公式定理速查手册
This comprehensive handbook brings together all the essential formulas, word equations, and key principles you will encounter in Year 7 CCEA Biology. Use it as a quick reference to reinforce your understanding, prepare for tests, and build a solid foundation in life science.
这本综合手册汇集了7年级CCEA生物课程中所有重要的公式、文字方程式和核心原理。你可以将它作为快速参考，用来巩固理解、备考并打下生命科学的坚实基础。
1. The Photosynthesis Word Equation | 光合作用文字方程式
Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants use light energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose (their food) and oxygen. This reaction takes place in the chloroplasts, which contain a green pigment called chlorophyll.
光合作用是绿色植物利用光能，将二氧化碳和水转化为葡萄糖（植物的食物）和氧气的过程。这一反应发生在含有绿色色素叶绿素的叶绿体中。
carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen
二氧化碳 + 水 → 葡萄糖 + 氧气
Chlorophyll absorbs sunlight and uses its energy to drive the reaction. Water is absorbed by the roots and transported to the leaves, while carbon dioxide enters through stomata (tiny pores).
叶绿素吸收阳光，并利用其中的能量推动反应。水被根部吸收后运输到叶片，二氧化碳则通过气孔（微小的孔隙）进入叶片。
Glucose produced is either used immediately for respiration, converted to starch for storage, or used to make other substances such as cellulose for cell walls.
生成的葡萄糖要么立即用于呼吸作用，要么转化为淀粉储存，要么用于制造其他物质，如构成细胞壁的纤维素。
Oxygen is released into the atmosphere as a by-product. This is why plants are essential for maintaining the balance of gases in our air.
氧气作为副产品释放到大气中，这就是植物对于维持空气气体平衡至关重要的原因。
2. The Aerobic Respiration Word Equation | 有氧呼吸文字方程式
Aerobic respiration occurs in the mitochondria of cells and releases energy from glucose. It requires oxygen and is a continuous process in most living organisms.
有氧呼吸发生在细胞的线粒体中，从葡萄糖释放能量。它需要氧气，是大多数生物体内持续进行的过程。
glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water (+ energy released)
葡萄糖 + 氧气 → 二氧化碳 + 水 (+ 释放的能量)
Energy is used to power activities such as muscle contraction, growth, cell division, and maintaining body temperature in warm-blooded animals.
能量用于驱动肌肉收缩、生长、细胞分裂以及维持恒温动物的体温等活动。
The carbon dioxide and water produced are waste products and are removed from the body through breathing and sweating.
产生的二氧化碳和水是废物，通过呼吸和出汗等方式排出体外。
3. Animal and Plant Cell Structures | 动物与植物细胞结构
Cells are the basic building blocks of life. Both animal and plant cells share some common parts, but plant cells have additional structures.
细胞是生命的基本组成单位。动物细胞和植物细胞有一些共同的结构，但植物细胞还有额外的结构。
| Structure (Animal & Plant) | 结构 (动物与植物) | Function | 功能 |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nucleus | 细胞核 | Controls cell activities and contains genetic material | 控制细胞活动，包含遗传物质 |
| Cytoplasm | 细胞质 | Jelly-like substance where chemical reactions occur | 胶状物质，是化学反应发生的场所 |
| Cell membrane | 细胞膜 | Controls what enters and leaves the cell | 控制物质的进出 |
| Mitochondria | 线粒体 | Site of aerobic respiration, release energy | 有氧呼吸的场所，释放能量 |
Plant cells also contain three additional structures: a rigid cell wall made of cellulose that provides support, a large permanent vacuole filled with cell sap, and chloroplasts for photosynthesis.
植物细胞还含有三种额外的结构：由纤维素构成的刚性细胞壁，提供支撑；一个充满细胞液的大液泡；以及进行光合作用的叶绿体。
| Plant-Only Structure | 仅植物具有的结构 | Function | 功能 |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cell wall | 细胞壁 | Strengthens and supports the cell | 加强并支撑细胞 |
| Chloroplast | 叶绿体 | Contains chlorophyll for photosynthesis | 含有叶绿素，用于光合作用 |
| Large vacuole | 大液泡 | Stores water and nutrients, maintains turgor | 储存水和营养物质，维持细胞膨压 |
4. Levels of Organisation in Living Things | 生物的组织层次
In complex organisms, cells are organised in a hierarchy. Each level builds on the previous one to create a functioning whole.
在复杂的生物体中，细胞是按等级组织的。每个层次都建立在前一层次之上，以形成一个功能性整体。
- Cell: The smallest unit of life (e.g. muscle cell, nerve cell). 细胞： 生命的最小单位（例如肌肉细胞、神经细胞）。
- Tissue: A group of similar cells working together to perform a specific function (e.g. muscle tissue). 组织： 一组相似的细胞协同工作，执行特定功能（例如肌肉组织）。
- Organ: A structure made up of different tissues that work together (e.g. heart, stomach). 器官： 由不同组织组合而成的结构，共同工作（例如心脏、胃）。
- Organ system: A group of organs working together (e.g. digestive system, circulatory system). 器官系统： 一组器官协同工作（例如消化系统、循环系统）。
- Organism: The complete living individual, with all systems functioning together. 生物体： 完整的生命个体，所有系统共同运作。
This organisation applies to both animals and plants. For example, a leaf is an organ made of epidermal tissue, mesophyll tissue (photosynthetic tissue), and vascular tissue.
这种组织层次也适用于植物和动物。例如，叶子是一个器官，由表皮组织、叶肉组织（光合组织）和维管组织构成。
5. The Human Digestive System and Enzymes | 人体消化系统与酶
Digestion breaks down large, insoluble food molecules into small, soluble ones that can be absorbed into the blood. This occurs as food passes along the digestive tract.
消化将大的、不溶的食物分子分解为能吸收到血液中的小的、可溶的分子。这一过程在食物通过消化道时发生。
| Organ | 器官 | Role in Digestion | 在消化中的作用 |
|---|---|---|---|
| Mouth | 口腔 | Chewing, starch digestion by amylase in saliva begins | 咀嚼，唾液中的淀粉酶开始消化淀粉 |
| Oesophagus | 食道 | Pushes food to stomach by peristalsis | 通过蠕动将食团推送到胃 |
| Stomach | 胃 | Churns food; protease enzyme begins protein digestion; acid kills bacteria | 搅碎食物；蛋白酶开始消化蛋白质；胃酸杀菌 |
| Small intestine | 小肠 | Completes digestion of starch, proteins and fats; absorption of soluble nutrients | 完成淀粉、蛋白质和脂肪的消化；吸收可溶性营养 |
| Large intestine | 大肠 | Absorbs water, forms faeces | 吸收水分，形成粪便 |
Enzymes are biological catalysts made of protein. They speed up digestion without being used up. Each enzyme acts on a specific substrate.
酶是由蛋白质构成的生物催化剂。它们可以加速消化而自身不被消耗。每种酶作用于特定的底物。
| Enzyme | 酶 | Substrate → Products | 底物 → 产物 | Where it works | 作用部位 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Amylase | 淀粉酶 | Starch → simple sugars (maltose) | 淀粉 → 单糖（麦芽糖） | Mouth, small intestine | 口腔、小肠 |
| Protease | 蛋白酶 | Protein → amino acids | 蛋白质 → 氨基酸 | Stomach, small intestine | 胃、小肠 |
| Lipase | 脂肪酶 | Fats (lipids) → fatty acids + glycerol | 脂肪（脂类） → 脂肪酸 + 甘油 | Small intestine | 小肠 |
Enzymes are sensitive to changes in temperature and pH. They work best at their optimum conditions, often around 37°C for human enzymes.
酶对温度和 pH 的变化很敏感。它们在最适条件下活性最高，人体酶的最适温度通常在 37°C 左右。
6. The Breathing System and Gas Exchange | 呼吸系统与气体交换
Breathing, or ventilation, is the movement of air into and out of the lungs. It ensures that oxygen enters the blood and carbon dioxide is removed.
呼吸，或称通气，是空气进出肺部的运动。它确保氧气进入血液，而二氧化碳被排出。
During inhalation (breathing in), the diaphragm contracts and flattens, the intercostal muscles between the ribs contract, the ribcage moves up and outward. This increases the volume of the chest cavity, lowering the pressure and drawing air in.
在吸气过程中，膈肌收缩并变平，肋骨间的肋间肌收缩，肋骨向上向外移动。这增大了胸腔容积，降低了压力，从而使空气进入。
During exhalation (breathing out), the diaphragm relaxes and resumes its dome shape, the intercostal muscles relax, and the ribcage moves down. The thoracic volume decreases, pressure rises, and air is pushed out.
在呼气过程中，膈肌放松并恢复穹顶形状，肋间肌放松，肋骨下移。胸腔容积减小，压力升高，空气被排出。
Gas exchange occurs in the alveoli, tiny air sacs in the lungs. Oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the blood capillaries, while carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the alveoli to be exhaled.
气体交换在肺泡（肺部微小气囊）中进行。氧气从肺泡扩散到血液毛细血管中，而二氧化碳从血液扩散到肺泡中被呼出。
| Inhaled Air | 吸入气 | Exhaled Air | 呼出气 |
|---|---|---|---|
| ~21% oxygen | 约21%氧气 | ~16% oxygen | 约16%氧气 |
| ~0.04% carbon dioxide | 约0.04%二氧化碳 | ~4% carbon dioxide | 约4%二氧化碳 |
The large surface area of the alveoli, their thin walls, and the rich blood supply make gas exchange efficient.
肺泡的巨大表面积、薄壁和丰富的血液供应使气体交换高效进行。
7. The Circulatory System | 循环系统
The circulatory system transports blood, nutrients, gases, and waste products around the body. It consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood.
循环系统将血液、营养物质、气体和废物运送到全身。它由心脏、血管和血液组成。
The heart is a muscular pump with four chambers: the right atrium and right ventricle (pump blood to the lungs), and the left atrium and left ventricle (pump blood to the rest of the body).
心脏是一个肌肉泵，有四个腔室：右心房和右心室（将血液泵至肺部），以及左心房和左心室（将血液泵至全身）。
- Arteries carry blood away from the heart under high pressure; they have thick, elastic walls. 动脉将血液在高压下带离心脏；它们具有厚而有弹性的壁。
- Veins carry blood back to the heart; they have valves to prevent backflow. 静脉将血液带回心脏；它们有瓣膜以防止倒流。
- Capillaries are tiny, thin-walled vessels where exchange of substances occurs with body cells. 毛细血管是微小、壁薄的血管，与体细胞发生物质交换。
Blood consists of plasma, red blood cells (carry oxygen), white blood cells (fight infection), and platelets (help blood clot).
血液由血浆、红细胞（携带氧气）、白细胞（抵抗感染）和血小板（帮助凝血）组成。
In the double circulatory system, blood passes through the heart twice per complete circuit: once to the lungs (pulmonary circulation) and once to the body (systemic circulation).
在双重循环系统中，血液每完成一次循环会流经心脏两次：一次前往肺部（肺循环），一次前往全身（体循环）。
8. Plant Reproduction: Flower Parts and Pollination | 植物繁殖：花的各部分与传粉
Flowers are the reproductive organs of many plants. They contain male and/or female structures that produce gametes.
花是许多植物的生殖器官。它们包含产生配子的雄性和/或雌性结构。
| Flower Part | 花的部分 | Function | 功能 |
|---|---|---|---|
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