📚 Year 7 WJEC Psychology: Formula & Theorem Quick Reference Handbook | Year 7 WJEC 心理学：公式定理速查手册
This quick reference handbook compiles the essential formulas, theorems, and key concepts you need for Year 7 WJEC Psychology. It covers research methods, memory, attachment, social influence, and cognitive development. Use it to revise key points efficiently before assessments.
本速查手册汇编了 Year 7 WJEC 心理学所需的基本公式、定理和核心概念，涵盖研究方法、记忆、依恋、社会影响和认知发展。用它来在评估前高效复习要点。
1. Independent Variable (IV) and Dependent Variable (DV) | 自变量与因变量
The independent variable (IV) is the factor that the researcher deliberately manipulates or changes to observe its effect. It must have at least two conditions (e.g. with music vs without music).
自变量（IV）是研究者为了观察其效果而有意操纵或改变的因素。它必须至少有两个条件（例如有音乐与无音乐）。
The dependent variable (DV) is the factor that is measured to see if it has been affected by the IV. Scores, time taken, or number of words recalled are common DVs.
因变量（DV）是被测量的因素，用以检验它是否受到了自变量的影响。分数、所用时间或回忆的单词数量是常见的因变量。
A clear experimental hypothesis states the expected effect: “Participants who listen to music while studying will recall more words than those who study in silence.” Here, music condition is the IV, and number of words recalled is the DV.
明确的实验假设会陈述预期效果：“边学习边听音乐的参与者会比在安静中学习的参与者回忆更多单词。”这里，音乐条件就是自变量，回忆的单词数量是因变量。
2. Mean, Median, Mode, and Range | 平均数、中位数、众数和范围
These are descriptive statistics that summarise a data set. The mean is the arithmetic average. You add all the scores together, then divide by the number of scores.
这些是总结数据集的描述性统计量。平均数（均值）是算术平均值。你先把所有分数加起来，然后除以分数的个数。
Mean = Σx ÷ n
(Σx = sum of all scores; n = number of scores)
（Σx 表示所有分数的总和；n 表示分数的个数）
The median is the middle value when scores are ordered from smallest to largest. If there are two middle numbers, take their average. The mode is the most frequently occurring score.
中位数是将分数从小到大排序后位于中间的那个数值。如果有两个中间数，则取它们的平均值。众数是出现次数最多的分数。
Median position = (n + 1) ÷ 2
The range tells you how spread out the data are. It is simply the highest score minus the lowest score.
范围告诉你数据分布的广度。它就是最高分减去最低分。
Range = Highest score − Lowest score
For example, if memory test scores are 5, 7, 8, 8, 12: mean = (5+7+8+8+12) ÷ 5 = 8; median = 8; mode = 8; range = 12 − 5 = 7.
例如，记忆测验分数为 5, 7, 8, 8, 12：平均数 = (5+7+8+8+12) ÷ 5 = 8；中位数 = 8；众数 = 8；范围 = 12 − 5 = 7。
3. Percentage Calculation | 百分比计算
Percentages help researchers describe proportions, like the proportion of participants who recalled a certain word or agreed with a statement. The formula is:
百分比帮助研究者描述比例，例如回忆出特定单词或同意某个陈述的参与者所占的比例。公式为：
Percentage = (Part ÷ Whole) × 100%
If 17 out of 25 participants conformed in a task, the percentage of conformity = (17 ÷ 25) × 100% = 68%.
如果一项任务中 25 名参与者有 17 人从众，则从众的百分比 = (17 ÷ 25) × 100% = 68%。
Percentages are also useful when comparing results between different-sized groups, and they often appear in psychological reports to make data easier to interpret.
百分比在比较不同规模的组别结果时也很有用，并且经常出现在心理学报告中，使数据更易于解释。
4. The Multi-Store Model of Memory | 记忆的多存储模型
Proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), this model describes memory as three separate stores linked by processes of attention and rehearsal. The flow is:
这个模型由 Atkinson 和 Shiffrin（1968）提出，将记忆描述为三个独立的存储库，通过注意和复述的过程相连。流程如下：
Sensory memory → (Attention) → Short-term memory → (Rehearsal) → Long-term memory
感觉记忆 → （注意） → 短时记忆 → （复述） → 长时记忆
Information from the environment enters sensory memory, where it lasts only a fraction of a second. If we pay attention to it, the information passes into short-term memory (STM). Through maintenance rehearsal (repeating it), the information can be transferred into long-term memory (LTM), where it can stay for a lifetime. Without rehearsal, STM traces decay rapidly.
来自环境的信息进入感觉记忆，在那里仅持续几分之一秒。如果我们注意它，信息就进入短时记忆（STM）。通过维持性复述（不断重复），信息可以转入长时记忆（LTM），并有可能终生储存。没有复述，短时记忆痕迹会迅速消退。
5. Duration and Capacity of Memory Stores | 记忆存储的持续时间和容量
Each store has a typical duration and capacity limit. These ‘theorem-like’ facts are central to WJEC study of memory:
每个存储库都有典型的持续时间和容量限制。这些“定理般”的事实是 WJEC 记忆研究的核心：
Sensory memory: duration is very brief (less than 0.5 seconds for visual, 2–3 seconds for auditory). Capacity is very large but unprocessed.
感觉记忆：持续时间极短（视觉小于 0.5 秒，听觉 2–3 秒）。容量非常大，但未经加工。
Short-term memory: duration is about 18–30 seconds without rehearsal. Capacity is famously 7 ± 2 items (Miller, 1956). Chunking can increase the amount of information held.
短时记忆：没有复述时约 18–30 秒。容量如著名的 7 ± 2 个组块（Miller, 1956）。组块化可以增加所保持的信息量。
STM Capacity Theorem: 7 ± 2 items | 短时记忆容量定理：7 ± 2 个组块
Long-term memory: duration is potentially unlimited (a whole lifetime). Capacity is also thought to be unlimited. Forgetting in LTM occurs due to interference or retrieval failure, not decay alone.
长时记忆：持续时间可能无限（长达一生）。容量也被认为是无限的。长时记忆的遗忘是由于干扰或提取失败，而不仅是消退。
6. Principles of Attachment (Bowlby) | 依恋的原理（鲍尔比）
John Bowlby’s theory of attachment presents several key principles, which can be treated as ‘theorems’ of social-emotional development:
John Bowlby 的依恋理论提出了几条关键原则，可以视为社会-情感发展的“定理”：
Adaptive principle: Attachment behaviour is innate and has survival value. Infants form a bond with a caregiver who keeps them safe from danger.
适应性原理：依恋行为是天生的，具有生存价值。婴儿与能够保护他们免受危险的照顾者建立连结。
Social releasers: Babies display behaviours like crying, smiling, and cooing, which trigger caregiving responses in adults. These are social releasers that promote attachment.
社会释放器：婴儿表现出哭泣、微笑和咿呀声等行为，这些会触发成人的照顾反应。它们就是促进依恋的社会释放器。
Critical period: There is a sensitive window, roughly 0–2.5 years, during which an attachment must form. If it does not, the child may face long-term social and emotional difficulties.
关键期：大约 0 到 2.5 岁是一个敏感窗口，在此期间必须形成依恋。否则孩子可能会面临长期的社交和情感困难。
Monotropy and the internal working model: Bowlby argued that infants have one primary attachment figure (monotropy). This first relationship forms a mental template, the internal working model, which influences all future relationships.
单亲依恋与内部工作模型：鲍尔比认为婴儿有一个主要的依恋对象（单亲依恋）。这第一段关系会形成一个心理模板，即内部工作模型，影响着未来所有的人际关系。
7. Harlow’s Contact Comfort Theorem | 哈洛的接触安慰定理
Harry Harlow’s research with rhesus monkeys demonstrated that contact comfort is more important than feeding in forming attachment. This challenged the earlier cupboard love theory.
Harry Harlow 对恒河猴的研究表明，接触安慰比喂食在形成依恋中更加重要。这挑战了早期的“碗柜之爱”理论。
Baby monkeys were placed with two surrogate mothers: a wire model that dispensed milk, and a soft cloth model that provided no food. The monkeys overwhelmingly preferred the cloth mother, clinging to it for comfort and only going to the wire mother when hungry.
幼猴被安排与两个替代母亲一起：一个是由金属丝制成并提供奶水的模型，另一个是柔软绒布制成但不提供食物的模型。猴子们压倒性地偏好绒布母亲，紧紧抱着它寻求安慰，仅在饥饿时才去找金属丝母亲。
Conclusion: The essential ingredient for attachment is not food, but the feeling of warmth and softness – contact comfort. This finding reinforces the idea that emotional security is a fundamental need.
结论：依恋的关键要素不是食物，而是温暖柔软的感觉——接触安慰。这一发现强化了情感安全感是一项基本需求的观点。
8. Social Influence: Conformity and Obedience | 社会影响：从众与服从
These two types of social influence can be defined by simple ‘if-then’ theorems that appear regularly in WJEC assessments.
这两种社会影响类型可以用简单的“如果—那么”定理来定义，常在 WJEC 考试中出现。
Conformity: A change in a person’s behaviour or opinion as a result of real or imagined pressure from a group. Asch (1951) showed that many participants conformed to an obviously incorrect group judgement about line lengths – the group pressure was enough to override their own perception.
从众：由于来自群体的真实或想象的压力，个人的行为或意见发生改变。Asch（1951）证明，许多参与者顺从了群体对线段长度明显错误的判断——群体压力足以凌驾于自己的感知之上。
Obedience: Following a direct order from an authority figure, even if it goes against personal conscience. Milgram (1963) found that 65% of ordinary men were willing to administer what they believed were dangerous electric shocks when instructed by an experimenter in a white coat.
服从：遵从权威人物直接下达的命令，即使它与个人良知相悖。Milgram（1963）发现，65% 的普通男性在穿白大褂的实验者指令下，愿意施加他们认为危险的电击。
Theorem summary: Conformity is driven by the group, obedience by an authority figure. Both highlight the power of the situation.
定理总结：从众由群体驱动，服从由权威人物驱动。两者都凸显了情境的力量。
9. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development | 皮亚杰认知发展阶段
Jean Piaget’s theory posits that children’s thinking develops in four fixed stages, each characterised by new cognitive abilities. These stages form a ‘theorem’ of intellectual growth.
Jean Piaget 的理论认为，儿童的思维按四个固定阶段发展，每个阶段都有新的认知能力特征。这些阶段构成了智力成长的“定理”。
Sensorimotor stage (0–2 years): Infants learn through senses and actions. Object permanence develops – understanding that objects exist even when out of sight.
感知运动阶段（0–2 岁）：婴儿通过感觉和动作学习。客体永久性发展起来——理解了物体即使看不见也仍然存在。
Preoperational stage (2–7 years): Children use symbols and language but cannot yet use logic. Thinking is egocentric, and they struggle with conservation – the idea that quantity remains the same despite changes in appearance.
前运算阶段（2–7 岁）：儿童使用符号和语言，但尚未能运用逻辑。思维是自我中心的，他们在守恒概念上有困难——即明白即使外观改变，量仍保持不变。
Concrete operational stage (7–11 years): Logical thinking begins, but is limited to concrete objects. Children master conservation and can classify objects. However, they find abstract reasoning difficult.
具体运算阶段（7–11 岁）：逻辑思维开始出现，但仅限于具体实物。儿童掌握守恒并能分类物体。然而，他们感到抽象推理很困难。
Formal operational stage (11+ years): Abstract, hypothetical thinking becomes possible. Adolescents can solve problems systematically and think about possibilities. Not everyone reaches this stage in all areas.
形式运算阶段（11 岁及以上）：抽象、假设性思维成为可能。青少年可以系统性地解决问题并思考可能性。并非每个人在所有领域都能达到此阶段。
10. Ethical Guidelines – the BPS Research Formula | 伦理准则——BPS 研究公式
Psychological research must follow a set of ethical principles, often remembered as a formula of core standards. The British Psychological Society (BPS) outlines these key requirements.
心理学研究必须遵循一套伦理原则，通常被记为一个核心标准公式。英国心理学会（BPS）列出了这些关键要求。
Informed consent: Participants must know what the study involves and agree to take part, ideally in writing. For under 16s, parental consent is needed.
知情同意：参与者必须知道研究涉及什么，并同意参加，理想情况下是书面的。16 岁以下需父母同意。
Avoid deception: Researchers should not mislead participants unless absolutely necessary and scientifically justified. If deception is used, a thorough debrief must follow.
避免欺骗：除非绝对必要且有科学理由，研究者不应误导参与者。如果使用了欺骗，之后必须进行彻底的事后说明。
Debrief and right to withdraw: After the study, participants must be told the true purpose and given the chance to discuss concerns. They must also be reminded they have the right to withdraw their data at any time.
事后说明与退出权：研究结束后，必须告知参与者真正目的，并给予讨论关切的机会。还必须提醒他们随时有权撤回自己的数据。
Confidentiality and protection from harm: Data must be kept anonymous, and real names should not appear in reports. Researchers must protect participants from physical and psychological harm. The ‘formula’ can be summarised as: Consent + No Deception + Debrief + Confidential + Protection.
保密与免受伤害：数据必须匿名保存，真实姓名不应出现在报告中。研究者必须保护参与者免遭身体与心理伤害。这一“公式”可总结为：同意 + 无欺骗 + 事后说明 + 保密 + 保护。
11. Sampling Methods and Sample Size Principle | 取样方法与样本量原则
Researchers cannot test everyone in the target population, so they select a sample. The way the sample is chosen affects how well results can be generalised.
研究者不可能测试目标人群中的每一个人，所以他们选取一个样本。样本的选择方式会影响结果可推广的程度。
Random sampling: Every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected. This reduces bias, but it is difficult to achieve because a complete list of the population is often unavailable.
随机取样：目标人群中的每个成员都有同等机会被选中。这可以减少偏差，但很难实现，因为通常没有完整的人群名单。
Opportunity sampling: Researchers select participants who are readily available at the time of the study, such as people passing by or classmates. It is quick and convenient, but the sample may not be representative.
机会取样：研究者选取在研究当时最容易获得的参与者，比如路过的人或同班同学。它快速、方便，但样本可能不具代表性。
Sample size principle: Generally, larger samples give more reliable and representative results. A small sample might miss important variations in the population. There is no fixed number, but Year 7 experiments often use 20–30 participants to strike a balance between practicality and reliability.
样本量原则：通常，较大的样本能给出更可靠、更具代表性的结果。小样本可能会遗漏人群中重要的变异。没有固定数字，但 Year 7 的实验常常使用 20–30 名参与者来平衡可行性和可靠性。
12. Correlation Is Not Causation Theorem | 相关不等于因果定理
One of the most important theorems in psychology is that a relationship between two variables does not mean that one causes the other. This is essential for interpreting studies correctly.
心理学中最重要的定理之一是：两个变量之间的关系并不意味着一个导致了另一个。这对于正确解释研究至关重要。
A positive correlation: as one variable increases, the other also tends to increase (e.g. time spent on social media and stress scores). A negative correlation: as one variable increases, the other tends to decrease (e.g. hours of sleep and irritability). A zero correlation means no relationship.
正相关：当一个变量增加时，另一个也倾向于增加（例如，花在社交媒体上的时间与压力分数）。负相关：当一个变量增加时，另一个倾向于减少（例如，睡眠时长与易怒程度）。零相关意味着没有关系。
However, even a strong correlation cannot prove causation. A third variable, called a confounding variable, might be the real cause. For example, a study might find a positive correlation between ice cream sales and drowning incidents. It is absurd to think ice cream causes drowning; the hidden variable is hot weather, which increases both.
然而，即使强相关也不能证明因果关系。一个称为混淆变量的第三变量才可能是真正的原因。例如，有研究可能发现冰淇淋销售量与溺水事件呈正相关。认为冰淇淋导致溺水是荒谬的；隐藏的变量是炎热的天气，它同时增加了两者。
Therefore, always apply the theorem: Correlation does not imply causation. When you see a relationship reported, ask: Could a third factor explain this link?
所以，永远记得这个定理：相关不意味着因果。当你看到报告中的某种关系时，一定要问：会不会有第三个因素能解释这种联系？
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