📚 Year 11 Cambridge Philosophy: Key Terminology Memorisation Guide | Year 11 剑桥哲学：关键术语速记指南
Philosophy at Year 11 level requires not just understanding concepts but also memorising a wide range of specific terminology. Whether you’re studying epistemology, ethics, or metaphysics, accurate use of terms like ‘a priori’, ‘utilitarianism’, or ‘determinism’ is essential for exam success. This guide provides fast-track memory techniques, breaking down each term with clear English explanations and Chinese equivalents, plus memorable mnemonics, word associations, and vivid examples. Let’s turn tricky vocabulary into easy recall!
Year 11 阶段的哲学学习不仅需要理解概念，还要熟记大量专业术语。不论学习认识论、伦理学还是形而上学，准确使用诸如“先验”、“功利主义”或“决定论”等术语对考试至关重要。本指南提供速记技巧，为每个术语配上清晰的英文释义与中文对应，并提供好记的口诀、词根联想和生动例子。让拗口的词汇变成轻松回忆！
1. Epistemology Terminology | 认识论术语
Epistemology investigates knowledge, belief, and justification. Mastering its core terms will help you tackle questions about what we can know and how we know it.
认识论探讨知识、信念与辩护。掌握其核心术语有助于解答关于我们能知道什么以及如何知道的问题。
A priori – knowledge that is independent of experience, e.g. ‘2 + 2 = 4’. Memory hack: think of ‘prior’ to experience, as if your mind already contains the answer before you check.
先验 — 独立于经验的知识，例如“2 + 2 = 4”。记忆技巧：想象“先于”经验，仿佛大脑在核查前就已拥有答案。
A posteriori – knowledge that depends on experience or empirical evidence, e.g. ‘The sun rises in the east’. Remember ‘post’ means after, so it comes after you observe.
后验 — 依赖于经验或实证证据的知识，例如“太阳从东边升起”。记住“后”表示观察之后才获得。
Rationalism – the view that reason is the primary source of knowledge. Mnemonic: Ratio (Latin for reason) + nalism. Picture a rational mind calculating truths.
理性主义 — 认为理性是知识主要来源的观点。记忆法：联想“理性”与“逻辑推演”，像数学家闭眼推算公理。
Empiricism – the view that all knowledge comes from sense experience. Think of ’empirical’ evidence, the stuff you can see, hear, and touch. Empiricism = emphasis on experience.
经验主义 — 认为所有知识都来自感官经验的观点。记住“经验”二字，你看见、听见、触碰到的才是知识的根基。
Scepticism – the questioning attitude towards knowledge claims. Mnemonic: ‘Sceptic’ sounds like ‘skeptic’ – someone who always asks ‘Are you sure?’.
怀疑论 — 对知识主张持疑问态度。联想：怀疑论者总在问“你确定吗？”，竖起一道质疑的防线。
Necessary truth – a statement that must be true in all possible worlds, e.g. ‘All bachelors are unmarried’. Memory aid: No way around it, it’s necessarily so.
必然真理 — 在所有可能世界都为真的陈述，例如“所有单身汉都未婚”。记忆：无论如何都成立，必然如此。
Contingent truth – a statement that is true but could have been false, e.g. ‘London is the capital of the UK’. Think: It depends on circumstances, can be different in another world.
偶然真理 — 真却可能为假的陈述，例如“伦敦是英国首都”。想象另一个世界里首都或许在伯明翰，是“偶然”成真。
2. Metaphysics and Reality Terms | 形而上学与实在术语
Metaphysics deals with the fundamental nature of reality. These terms help you discuss what ultimately exists.
形而上学关涉实在的根本性质。这些术语帮助你讨论什么才是真正存在的。
Realism – the belief that reality exists independently of our minds. Memory hack: Real-ism – things are real regardless of what you think.
实在论 — 相信现实不依赖于心灵而独立存在。记忆：“实在”即事物不管你认不认，它就在那里。
Idealism – the view that reality is fundamentally mental or dependent on minds. Think of an idea-l world constructed by perception.
唯心主义 — 认为实在本质上是精神的或依赖于心灵的。想象世界是“心”投射出的观念画卷。
Dualism – the theory that mind and body are two distinct substances. Mnemonic: Duo means two – two separate things, mind + body.
二元论 — 认为心灵与身体是两种不同实体的理论。记忆：“二”元，即两个独立阵营，心灵与肉身。
Materialism – everything that exists is physical or material. Also called physicalism. Link: Material girl – everything is made of matter.
唯物主义 — 一切存在之物皆为物理或物质的。也称物理主义。联想：万物皆“物质”构成，连意识都是大脑的功能。
Solipsism – the extreme view that only one’s own mind is sure to exist. Memory aid: Solo + ipse (self) – ‘only myself’. Imagine being trapped inside your own head.
唯我论 — 极端观点认为唯有自己的心灵确定存在。记忆：独“我”，仿佛全世界只是你脑中播放的电影。
Substance – in philosophy, the fundamental ‘stuff’ that makes up reality. Descartes defined substance as that which needs nothing else to exist. Think of the ultimate fabric of the universe.
实体 — 哲学中指构成实在的基本“基质”。笛卡尔定义实体为无需依赖他物而存在者。形象化为宇宙最根本的编织线。
3. Free Will and Determinism | 自由意志与决定论术语
These terms address whether we are truly free to choose or whether every event is predetermined.
这些术语探讨我们是否真正自由选择，抑或一切事件早已注定。
Free will – the ability to make choices that are genuinely open and undetermined. Mnemonic: Your will is free like an artist unconstrained by rules.
自由意志 — 能够做出真正开放且未被决定的选择的能力。记忆：你的“意志”像自由的飞鸟，不受锁链束缚。
Determinism – the thesis that every event has a cause, and given the past and laws of nature, only one future is possible. Think of a row of dominoes: each mindless knock leads to the next.
决定论 — 主张每个事件皆有原因，且鉴于过去与自然法则，未来只有一种可能。想象多米诺骨牌，一推全倒。
Hard determinism – combines determinism with the claim that free will is an illusion because we could never have done otherwise. Memory: Hard = no squishy room for freedom.
强硬决定论 — 将决定论与“自由意志是幻觉”相结合，因为我们从不曾真能另做他选。记忆：石头般坚硬，自由无处可容。
Libertarianism (metaphysical) – in philosophy, the view that some actions are free and not determined. Not about politics! Mnemonic: Liberty to choose, agent is the ultimate source.
自由意志主义（形而上学） — 哲学中指某些行为是自由的且不被决定的。无关政治！记忆：拥有选择“自由”的纯粹主体。
Compatibilism (soft determinism) – the view that free will and determinism can coexist. Free will means acting according to your own desires without external coercion, even if those desires are determined. Mnemonic: Compatible = they can live together happily.
相容论（温和决定论） — 认为自由意志与决定论可共存。按自身欲望行动未被外力强迫，即便欲望本身被决定。记忆：相容，就像同屋室友互不排斥。
4. Mind and Body | 心身问题术语
Philosophy of mind asks how mental states relate to the physical brain. These terms will sharpen your analysis.
心灵哲学追问心理状态如何与物理大脑相关联。这些术语将让你的分析更锋利。
Substance dualism – the Cartesian view that mind and body are two distinct substances, one thinking, one extended. Mnemonic: Descartes’ two worlds – the ghost in the machine.
实体二元论 — 笛卡尔式观点：心灵与身体是两种不同的实体，一为思维，一为广延。记忆：笛卡尔的“机器中的幽灵”。
Property dualism – there is only one substance (the physical), but it has two kinds of properties: physical and mental. Think of a coin with two faces – material yet conscious.
属性二元论 — 仅有一种实体（物理），但具有两种属性：物理属性和心理属性。联想：一枚硬币的两面，物质与意识同在。
Materialism/Physicalism – mental states are entirely physical brain states. Mnemonic: Mind is what the brain does. No extra ingredient.
唯物主义/物理主义 — 心理状态完全就是大脑的物理状态。记忆：心灵是大脑的“动作”，没有额外配料。
Epiphenomenalism – mental events are caused by physical events but have no causal power themselves. Like the whistle of a steam train – a by-product that doesn’t drive the engine. Memory: Epi- = upon, phenomenon = appearance, just a side effect.
副现象论 — 心理事件由物理事件引起，但自身无因果作用。像蒸汽火车的哨声——只出声不驱动。记忆：“副”现象，副产品而已。
Interactionism – mind and body causally influence each other, as Descartes thought via the pineal gland. Imagine a two-way radio between mind and body.
交互论 — 心灵与身体因果地相互影响，如笛卡尔设想的松果腺沟通。想象心身之间有一台双向对讲机。
5. Ethical Theories | 伦理理论术语
Normative ethics is full of isms. Nail these to compare and evaluate moral philosophy.
规范化理学充满各种“主义”。掌握这些才能比较和评价道德哲学。
Utilitarianism – the moral theory that the right action is the one that maximises overall happiness or utility. Mnemonic: Utility + arianism, ‘usefulness’ for the greatest number. Jeremy Bentham’s felicific calculus.
功利主义 — 道德理论认为正确行为即最大化整体幸福或功利。记忆：“功利”即最大多数人的最大幸福，边沁的快乐微积分。
Deontology – duty-based ethics; some acts are morally obligatory regardless of consequences. Greek deon = duty. Memory: Don’t deviate from duty – ‘deo’ sounds like ‘duty-o!’
义务论 — 基于义务的伦理学；某些行为不论后果皆具有道德约束力。希腊文“deon”即义务。记忆：义务至上，不可偏离。
Virtue ethics – focuses on character and the virtues that make a person good, rather than rules or consequences. Think Aristotle: be virtuous, find the Golden Mean. Mnemonic: Virtue = what would a wise person do?
德性伦理 — 关注品格和使人良善的德性，而非规则或后果。想象亚里士多德的中庸之道。记忆：德性，思考“智者会怎样做？”
Categorical imperative – Kant’s supreme moral principle: act only according to that maxim which you can at the same time will to become a universal law. Mnemonic: ‘Category’ = unconditional command, no ‘ifs’. Imagine a universal rule-machine: would your action pass?
定言命令 — 康德的最高道德原则：只按照你同时愿意它成为普遍法则的准则去行动。记忆：“定言”即无条件命令，不带假设。设想一台普遍法则检测机，你的行为能通过吗？
Consequentialism – the class of theories that judge actions solely by their outcomes. Utilitarianism is one form. Mnemonic: Consequence = result, look at the aftermath.
后果论 — 仅以结果评判行为的一类理论。功利主义即其一。记忆：后果，关注结局。
Hedonism – the view that pleasure is the highest good. Ethical hedonism says we ought to pursue pleasure. Mnemonic: Hedon = pleasure, think of a blissful ‘hedonist’ sunbathing.
享乐主义 — 认为快乐是最高善的观点。伦理享乐主义主张我们应当追求快乐。记忆：快乐至上，像躺在沙滩上的享乐者。
6. Moral Concepts | 道德概念术语
Deepen your ethical arguments with these meta-ethical and applied terms.
用这些元伦理和应用术语深化你的道德论证。
Moral absolutism – there are universal, unchanging moral principles that apply in all situations. Mnemonic: Absolute = no exceptions, like gravity of moral law.
道德绝对主义 — 存在适用于所有情境的普遍不变道德原则。记忆：绝对，如同道德律的万有引力，无例外。
Moral relativism – morality is relative to culture, society, or individual. Memory: Relatives differ – your moral views depend on your cultural family.
道德相对主义 — 道德相对于文化、社会或个人。记忆：亲戚各有不同，道德观点随文化家庭变化。
Moral realism – the view that moral facts exist independently of human opinion, akin to mind-independent truths. Mnemonic: Real moral truths out there waiting to be discovered.
道德实在论 — 道德事实独立于人类意见而存在，如同不依赖于心灵的真理。记忆：真实的善与恶就在那里等着被发现。
Moral anti-realism – denies objective moral facts; morality is constructed by attitudes or prescriptions. Think: No moral colours in the universe, only our projections.
道德反实在论 — 否认客观道德事实，道德由态度或规定构造。记忆：宇宙原本无色，善恶是我们投射上去的。
Naturalistic fallacy – G.E. Moore’s term for the mistake of defining ‘good’ in natural terms (e.g. pleasure). You cannot derive an ‘ought’ from an ‘is’. Mnemonic: Just because something is pleasant doesn’t mean it is good – the fallacy of jumping from description to prescription.
自然主义谬误 — G.E. 摩尔指出的错误：用自然属性（如快乐）定义“善”。不能从“是”推出“应当”。记忆：快乐是描述，善是规定，不可直接跳跃。
Is-ought problem – Hume’s problem that you cannot logically derive normative statements from purely descriptive ones. Memory: Is ≠ Ought gap; you need a bridge of values.
“是—应当”问题 — 休谟指出不能从纯描述性陈述逻辑推导出规范性陈述。记忆：“是”与“应当”之间有鸿沟，需要价值观搭桥。
7. Logic and Argument Terms | 逻辑与论证术语
Philosophical writing requires precision in reasoning. These logical terms will make your essays tight.
哲学写作需要严谨的推理。这些逻辑术语会让你的论文缜密有力。
Premise – a statement that provides support for a conclusion. Mnemonic: Pre – before the climax. Premises are the building blocks before the final claim.
前提 — 为结论提供支持的陈述。记忆：“前”提，是通往结论的基石。
Conclusion – the statement that is supported by the premises. Mnemonic: It concludes the argument; the destination of reasoning.
结论 — 由前提所支持的陈述。记忆：讨论的收尾，推理的终点。
Deduction – reasoning from general premises to a specific conclusion; if premises are true, conclusion must be true. Memory: Deductive = definite, top-down certainty. All men are mortal, Socrates is a man, so Socrates is mortal.
演绎 — 从一般前提到特定结论的推理；若前提真则结论必然真。记忆：演绎如同从顶层设计到底层细节，必定确保。
Induction – reasoning from specific observations to a general conclusion; probable but not certain. Think of the sun rising: we assume it will because it always has. Mnemonic: In-duction, ‘into’ a generalisation from instances.
归纳 — 从个别观察推出一般结论的推理；可能真但不必然。如太阳历来升起便推断明天也会。记忆：归纳，把实例汇聚成规律。
Validity – in deductive arguments, if the premises are true, the conclusion logically follows. Validity is about structure, not actual truth. Mnemonic: Valid form guarantees the link, even if premises are fake.
有效性 — 在演绎论证中，若前提为真，结论逻辑上必然推出。有效关乎结构，而非事实真假。记忆：有效形式确保推导链条，即使前提虚构。
Soundness – a deductive argument that is both valid and has all true premises. Sound = valid + true. Mnemonic: A sound argument is solid gold.
可靠性 — 一个演绎论证既有效且所有前提为真。可靠 = 有效 + 真。记忆：可靠的论证稳如金铸。
Fallacy – an error in reasoning that weakens an argument. Common fallacies: ad hominem (attacking the person), straw man (misrepresenting an argument). Mnemonic: Fallacy = false logic trap.
谬误 — 削弱论证的推理错误。常见谬误：人身攻击谬误（攻击人而非论点）、稻草人谬误（歪曲对方论点）。记忆：谬误，逻辑的陷阱。
8. Philosophy of Religion | 宗教哲学术语
Arguments for and against God’s existence are packed with technical vocabulary. Here are the must-know terms.
关于上帝存在的论证充满专业词汇。以下是必知术语。
Theism – belief in a God or gods, typically a personal creator who is omnipotent, omniscient, and omnibenevolent. Mnemonic: Theos = God.
有神论 — 信仰一个或多个神，通常指全知、全能、全善的造物主。记忆：Theos（神）的词根。
Atheism – disbelief or lack of belief in God. A- (without) + theism. Simply no deity.
无神论 — 不相信或缺乏对神的信仰。前缀“a-”表示无。没有神祇。
Agnosticism – the view that the existence of God is unknown or unknowable. Greek a-gnosis = without knowledge. Memory: ‘I don’t know, and neither do you!’
不可知论 — 认为神的存在不可知或无法知晓。希腊文“a-gnosis”意为无知识。记忆：“我不知道，你也不知道。”
Ontological argument – an a priori argument for God’s existence based on the very concept of a perfect being. Anselm’s version: God is ‘that than which nothing greater can be conceived’. Mnemonic: Onto- = being, argument from the definition of being.
本体论论证 — 基于完美存在者概念本身的一个先验上帝证明。安瑟尔谟：上帝是“无法设想之更伟大者”。记忆：本体即“存在”，从定义推存在。
Cosmological argument – an a posteriori argument that infers a first cause or necessary being from the existence of the cosmos. Aquinas’ first three ways. Mnemonic: Cosmos = universe, argument from causation.
宇宙论论证 — 从宇宙存在推出第一因或必然存在者的后验论证。阿奎那的前三路。记忆：宇宙-原因链，必有第一推动。
Teleological argument – the argument from design; the complexity and order in the universe suggest an intelligent designer. Paley’s watchmaker. Mnemonic: Telos = purpose, things look purposefully made.
目的论论证 — 设计论证；宇宙的复杂与秩序暗示一位智慧设计者。佩利的钟表匠。记忆：目的，万物似有意图地被造。
Problem of evil – the challenge to theism: if God is all-powerful and all-good, why does evil exist? Mnemonic: Epicurus’ trilemma – the rock and the hard place for theism.
恶的问题 — 对有神论的挑战：若上帝全能全善，为何存在恶？记忆：伊壁鸠鲁的三难困境，让有神论进退维谷。
9. Political Philosophy Concepts | 政治哲学概念
Even a brief encounter with political thought requires key terms. These will support essays on justice and authority.
即使浅涉政治思想也需要关键术语。这些将帮助你撰写关于正义与权威的论文。
Social contract – the idea that individuals consent to be governed in exchange for protection and order. Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau gave different versions. Mnemonic: A deal: you give up some freedom, the state keeps you safe.
社会契约 — 个体同意被统治以换取保护与秩序的观念。霍布斯、洛克、卢梭提出不同版本。记忆：一纸交易，你让渡部分自由，国家保你平安。
State of nature – a hypothetical condition before any government, used to justify political authority. Hobbes saw it as ‘nasty, brutish, and short’. Memory: Imagine a world without laws – total chaos or noble savages?
自然状态 — 假设无政府之状态，用以证成政治权威。霍布斯认为它“孤独、贫困、龌龊、野蛮而短促”。记忆：设想无法律的世界——混乱或纯朴？
Liberty – freedom from interference or the capacity to act. Isaiah Berlin’s negative liberty (freedom from) vs positive liberty (freedom to). Mnemonic: Liberty is the absence of chains, or the power to realise your true self.Published by TutorHao | Year 11 哲学 Revision Series | aleveler.com
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