📚 WJEC Year 12 Engineering Key Terminology Quick Memorisation Guide | WJEC 12年级工程核心术语速记指南
Mastering engineering terminology is the foundation of success in the WJEC Year 12 Engineering course. Without a firm grasp of key terms, even the most intuitive understanding of concepts can fall apart under exam pressure. This guide breaks down essential vocabulary into logical categories, pairing each term with a mnemonic, real-world example, and clear definition to accelerate your recall and deepen your comprehension.
掌握工程术语是 WJEC 12年级工程课程成功的基础。如果没有对关键术语的牢固掌握，即使是对概念最直观的理解也可能在考试压力下崩溃。本指南将核心词汇按逻辑分类，为每个术语配以速记法、实际案例和清晰定义，以加速你的记忆效率并加深理解深度。
1. Material Properties Terminology | 材料属性术语
Malleability refers to a material’s ability to be hammered or rolled into thin sheets without fracturing. Think of gold leaf beaten to translucent thinness — that is extreme malleability in action.
可锻性指材料被锤击或轧制成薄片而不断裂的能力。想想被打成半透明薄片的金箔——那就是极致的可锻性在实际中的体现。
Ductility describes how easily a material can be drawn into a wire. Copper is the classic example; its high ductility makes it ideal for electrical wiring. Remember: Ductile = Drawn (both start with D).
延展性描述材料被拉拔成丝的容易程度。铜是经典例子；其高延展性使其成为电线的理想选择。记住：Ductile（延展）= Drawn（拉拔），都以D开头。
Hardness measures resistance to indentation or scratching. Diamond scores 10 on the Mohs scale, while talc scores 1. In engineering, the Brinell and Rockwell tests quantify hardness numerically.
硬度衡量材料抵抗压痕或划伤的能力。钻石在莫氏硬度表上为10级，而滑石为1级。在工程中，布氏和洛氏硬度测试可对其进行量化。
Toughness is the ability to absorb energy and plastically deform without fracturing. A tough material withstands sudden impacts — think of a hammer head absorbing repeated shocks. Hardness and toughness are often inversely related.
韧性是材料吸收能量并发生塑性变形而不断裂的能力。韧性材料能承受突然的冲击——想想锤头反复吸收冲击的情况。硬度和韧性通常呈反比关系。
Elasticity enables a material to return to its original shape after deformation when the load is removed. Rubber bands demonstrate high elasticity, while a paper clip bent too far enters the plastic region and stays deformed.
弹性使材料在载荷移除后能恢复原始形状。橡皮筋表现出高弹性，而回形针弯曲过度则进入塑性区域并保持变形。
2. Mechanics and Structures Terminology | 力学与结构术语
Stress is defined as force per unit area, expressed in Pascals (Pa). The formula is σ = F ÷ A, where F is force and A is cross-sectional area. Visualise stress as the internal resistance within a material when an external force is applied.
应力定义为单位面积上的力，以帕斯卡为单位表示。公式为 σ = F ÷ A，其中F为力，A为横截面积。当外力施加时，将应力想象为材料内部的抵抗力。
Strain measures deformation as the ratio of change in length to original length: ε = ΔL ÷ L₀. Strain is dimensionless — it has no units. Direct strain causes length change; shear strain causes angular distortion.
应变以长度变化与原始长度的比值衡量变形：ε = ΔL ÷ L₀。应变是无量纲的——没有单位。正应变引起长度变化；剪应变引起角度变形。
Young’s Modulus (E) represents stiffness — the ratio of stress to strain within the elastic limit. E = σ ÷ ε. A steep gradient on a stress-strain graph indicates a stiff material with a high Young’s Modulus.
杨氏模量代表刚度——弹性极限内应力与应变之比。E = σ ÷ ε。应力-应变图上的陡峭斜率表明材料刚度大、杨氏模量高。
Moment of a Force equals force multiplied by the perpendicular distance from the pivot: M = F × d. It describes the turning effect. Clockwise and anticlockwise moments balance in equilibrium.
力矩等于力乘以距支点的垂直距离：M = F × d。它描述转动效应。在平衡状态下，顺时针力矩与逆时针力矩相互抵消。
3. Electronics Fundamentals Terminology | 电子基础术语
Voltage (potential difference) is the energy transferred per unit charge, measured in volts (V). Think of it as the electrical pressure that pushes current through a circuit — analogous to water pressure in a pipe.
电压是每单位电荷所传递的能量，以伏特为单位。将其想象为推动电流通过电路的电压力——类似于水管中的水压。
Current measures the rate of flow of electric charge, in amperes (A). Conventional current flows from positive to negative. Ohm’s Law links V, I, and R as V = I × R.
电流衡量电荷流动的速率，以安培为单位。常规电流从正极流向负极。欧姆定律将V、I和R联系起来：V = I × R。
Resistance opposes current flow, measured in ohms (Ω). Factors affecting resistance include length (longer wire = higher R), cross-sectional area (thicker wire = lower R), material resistivity, and temperature.
电阻阻碍电流流动，以欧姆为单位。影响电阻的因素包括长度（导线越长R越大）、横截面积（导线越粗R越小）、材料电阻率和温度。
Capacitance measures a component’s ability to store charge, in farads (F). A capacitor stores energy in an electric field between two plates. Time constant τ = R × C determines charge/discharge rate.
电容衡量元件储存电荷的能力，以法拉为单位。电容器在两极板之间的电场中储存能量。时间常数τ = R × C决定充放电速率。
4. Manufacturing Processes Terminology | 制造工艺术语
Casting involves pouring molten material into a mould cavity where it solidifies into the desired shape. Sand casting uses expendable sand moulds; die casting employs reusable metal moulds for high-volume production.
铸造是将熔融材料倒入模具型腔，使其凝固成所需形状的工艺。砂型铸造使用可消耗的砂模；压铸则采用可重复使用的金属模具进行大批量生产。
Milling removes material using a rotating multi-tooth cutter. The workpiece feeds into the spinning cutter on a milling machine. Face milling cuts flat surfaces; end milling cuts slots and profiles.
铣削使用旋转多刃刀具去除材料。工件在铣床上向旋转刀具进给。面铣削切削平面；立铣削切削槽和轮廓。
Turning rotates the workpiece while a stationary cutting tool removes material, typically on a lathe. It produces cylindrical parts. Facing, knurling, and thread cutting are common turning operations.
车削使工件旋转，同时固定刀具去除材料，通常在车床上进行。它用于生产圆柱形零件。端面车削、滚花和螺纹切削是常见的车削操作。
Welding joins materials by melting and fusing them, often with a filler material. MIG welding uses a continuous wire feed and shielding gas; TIG welding offers precision with a non-consumable tungsten electrode.
焊接通过熔化和融合材料（通常使用填充材料）来连接材料。MIG焊接使用连续送丝和惰性保护气；TIG焊接使用非消耗性钨电极，提供更高的精度。
5. Engineering Drawing and Design Terminology | 工程图纸与设计术语
Orthographic Projection represents a 3D object through multiple 2D views — typically front, side, and plan. Each view looks perpendicular to the object’s faces, preserving true dimensions without perspective distortion.
正交投影通过多个二维视图（通常为前视图、侧视图和俯视图）来表现三维物体。每个视图都垂直于物体的面进行观察，保留了真实尺寸，没有透视变形。
Isometric Drawing shows a 3D object where all three axes are equally foreshortened at 120-degree angles. Vertical edges remain vertical; horizontal edges incline at 30 degrees. Circles appear as ellipses.
等轴测图以三维方式展示物体，三轴均按120度角等比例缩短。垂直线保持垂直；水平线倾斜30度。圆形以椭圆形式呈现。
Tolerance specifies allowable variation from a nominal dimension. A dimension of 50 ± 0.1 mm means the part must measure between 49.9 and 50.1 mm. Tighter tolerances increase manufacturing costs.
公差规定与公称尺寸之间允许的偏差范围。尺寸50 ± 0.1 mm意味着零件必须在49.9至50.1 mm之间。更严格的公差会增加制造成本。
CAD (Computer-Aided Design) uses software to create, modify, and optimise designs digitally. Solid modelling builds fully defined 3D geometry, enabling simulations like stress analysis before physical prototyping.
CAD（计算机辅助设计）利用软件在数字环境中创建、修改和优化设计。实体建模构建完全定义的三维几何体，可以在物理原型制作之前进行应力分析等模拟。
6. Thermodynamics and Energy Terminology | 热力学与能量术语
Thermal Conductivity quantifies a material’s ability to conduct heat, measured in W/(m·K). Copper (≈400 W/(m·K)) conducts heat brilliantly, making it ideal for heat exchangers. Insulators like polystyrene have extremely low conductivity.
导热系数量化材料传导热量的能力，以W/(m·K)为单位。铜的导热系数约为400 W/(m·K)，导热性能极佳，非常适合热交换器。聚苯乙烯等绝缘材料的导热系数极低。
Specific Heat Capacity (c) is the energy required to raise 1 kg of a substance by 1 K (or 1 °C). Water has a high specific heat capacity (4200 J/(kg·K)), which is why it serves as an effective coolant.
比热容是使1 kg物质温度升高1 K（或1 °C）所需的能量。水具有较高的比热容（4200 J/(kg·K)），这就是它被用作有效冷却剂的原因。
Efficiency measures useful output energy divided by total input energy, expressed as a percentage: η = (E_out ÷ E_in) × 100%. No real system achieves 100% efficiency due to unavoidable energy losses, often as heat or friction.
效率衡量有用输出能量除以总输入能量，以百分比表示：η = (E_out ÷ E_in) × 100%。由于不可避免的能量损失（通常以热或摩擦的形式），没有实际系统能达到100%的效率。
7. Systems and Control Terminology | 系统与控制术语
Open-Loop System operates without feedback; the output has no influence on the control action. A simple toaster on a timer is open-loop — it toasts for a set duration regardless of whether the bread is burnt or barely warm.
开环系统在没有反馈的情况下运行；输出对控制动作没有影响。定时烤面包机就是一个开环系统——无论面包烧焦还是微热，它都会按照设定时间烤制。
Closed-Loop System uses feedback to compare actual output with the desired input, automatically correcting errors. A thermostat-controlled heating system senses room temperature and adjusts heating output accordingly.
闭环系统利用反馈将实际输出与期望输入进行比较，自动纠正误差。恒温器控制的供暖系统能感知室温并相应调节加热输出。
Transducer converts energy from one form to another. Input transducers (sensors) like thermistors convert temperature into electrical resistance. Output transducers (actuators) like LEDs convert electrical energy into light.
换能器将能量从一种形式转换为另一种形式。输入换能器（传感器）如热敏电阻将温度转换为电阻值。输出换能器（执行器）如LED将电能转换为光能。
Gain represents the ratio of output magnitude to input magnitude in an amplifier or system. Voltage gain = V_out ÷ V_in. In decibels, gain = 20 log₁₀(V_out/V_in). High gain amplifies signals strongly.
增益表示放大器或系统中输出幅值与输入幅值之比。电压增益 = V_out ÷ V_in。以分贝为单位时，增益 = 20 log₁₀(V_out/V_in)。高增益会强烈放大信号。
8. Measurement and Units Terminology | 测量与单位术语
Accuracy describes how close a measured value is to the true value. A single measurement on target demonstrates accuracy. Systematic errors like zero errors in calipers destroy accuracy but may not affect precision.
准确度描述测量值与真实值的接近程度。一次正中目标的测量体现了准确度。系统误差（如卡尺的零点误差）会破坏准确度，但可能不影响精密度。
Precision reflects the consistency or repeatability of measurements, regardless of their closeness to the true value. A set of tightly clustered readings (even if all are offset from the true value) demonstrates high precision.
精密度反映测量结果的一致性或可重复性，无论它们与真实值有多接近。一组紧密聚集的读数（即使全部偏离真实值）也表现出高精密度。
Resolution is the smallest change in quantity that a measuring instrument can detect. A digital multimeter displaying three decimal places has finer resolution than one displaying only one. Finer resolution enables more detailed measurement.
分辨率是测量仪器能够检测到的最小变化量。显示三位小数的数字万用表比仅显示一位的具有更精细的分辨率。更精细的分辨率可以实现更详细的测量。
Calibration adjusts an instrument by comparing it against a known standard. Regular calibration ensures readings remain trustworthy. An uncalibrated pressure gauge may systematically over-read or under-read.
校准通过将仪器与已知标准进行比较来对其进行调整。定期校准确保读数值始终保持可靠。未经校准的压力表可能会系统性地读数偏高或偏低。
9. CAD/CAM and Digital Technology Terminology | CAD/CAM与数字技术术语
CAM (Computer-Aided Manufacturing) uses software to control machine tools in the manufacturing process. CAM software converts CAD models into G-code instructions, directing CNC machines to cut, drill, or shape materials.
CAM（计算机辅助制造）使用软件在制造过程中控制机床。CAM软件将CAD模型转换为G代码指令，指导数控机床进行切削、钻孔或材料成形。
CNC (Computer Numerical Control) automates machine tools via programmed commands encoded on a storage medium. CNC mills and lathes execute complex toolpaths with repeatable precision, essential for mass production.
CNC（计算机数控）通过存储介质上编码的编程指令实现机床自动化。CNC铣床和车床以可重复的精度执行复杂刀具路径，这对于批量生产至关重要。
Rapid Prototyping (additive manufacturing or 3D printing) builds physical models layer by layer directly from CAD data. It enables quick iteration and testing of designs without expensive tooling or moulds.
快速原型制作（增材制造或3D打印）直接从CAD数据逐层构建物理模型。它无需昂贵的工装或模具，即可实现设计的快速迭代和测试。
10. Health and Safety Terminology | 健康与安全术语
Risk Assessment systematically identifies hazards, evaluates the likelihood and severity of harm, and implements control measures. The hierarchy of control ranks elimination as most effective, followed by substitution, engineering controls, administrative controls, and PPE as the last resort.
风险评估系统地识别危险、评估伤害的可能性和严重程度，并实施控制措施。控制层级将消除列为最有效措施，其次是替代、工程控制、行政控制，最后才是个人防护装备作为最后手段。
COSHH (Control of Substances Hazardous to Health) regulations require employers to control exposure to hazardous substances. Engineering workshops must assess risks from dust, fumes, solvents, and chemicals, maintaining safety data sheets for all substances.
COSHH（有害健康物质控制）法规要求雇主控制有害物质的接触。工程车间必须评估粉尘、烟雾、溶剂和化学品的风险，并为所有物质保留安全数据表。
Manual Handling refers to transporting or supporting loads by hand or bodily force. Proper technique — bending knees, keeping the back straight, and holding loads close — prevents musculoskeletal injuries in workshop environments.
人工搬运指用手或身体力量运输或支撑负载。正确的技术——屈膝、保持背部挺直、将负载贴近身体——可防止在车间环境中发生肌骨损伤。
Machine Guarding provides physical barriers that prevent operator contact with dangerous moving parts. Fixed guards, interlocked guards that stop the machine when opened, and two-hand controls are common protective measures on lathes and milling machines.
机械防护装置提供物理屏障，防止操作员接触危险的移动部件。固定防护罩、打开时停止机器的联锁防护罩以及双手控制装置是车床和铣床上常见的保护措施。
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