📚 Year 12 AQA Philosophy: Vocabulary and Terminology Quick-reference Guide | Year 12 AQA 哲学：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering AQA Philosophy hinges on a precise understanding of its core vocabulary. This guide presents key terms from the Year 12 specification – Epistemology, Moral Philosophy, and Metaphysics of God – along with memory aids to help you recall definitions quickly and accurately for your exams.
掌握 AQA 哲学的关键在于准确理解其核心词汇。本指南列出了 Year 12 考试范围内的关键术语——认识论、道德哲学与上帝形而上学——并提供记忆辅助，帮助你快速准确地回忆定义，沉着应考。
1. Epistemology: The Fundamentals | 认识论基础
Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with knowledge, belief, and justification. Key distinctions define the boundaries of what we can claim to know.
认识论是哲学中研究知识、信念与辩护的分支。关键区分界定出我们能够声称知道的事物边界。
Knowledge (Justified True Belief) – The traditional tripartite definition: a person S knows that P if and only if P is true, S believes that P, and S’s belief is justified. Think ‘TB+J’: Truth, Belief, plus Justification. Remember Gettier cases challenged this by showing that justification can be accidentally connected to truth.
知识（经辩护的真信念） – 传统三元定义：某人 S 知道 P，当且仅当 P 为真，S 相信 P，且 S 的信念得到辩护。记忆口诀 ‘T+B+J’（真+信+辩）。记住盖提尔案例动摇了这一定义，表明辩护可能与真相偶然相连。
Belief – A mental attitude of acceptance that a proposition is true. Without belief, there is no candidate for knowledge. Use the mental ‘yes’ sign: you cannot know what you do not genuinely accept.
信念 – 一种认为命题为真的心态。没有信念就不可能有知识。用内心的“是”作标记：你不可能知道你不真正接受的东西。
Propositional Knowledge – Knowledge that something is the case (knowledge-that), as opposed to knowledge-how or knowledge-by-acquaintance. Distinguish it from skill (riding a bike) or familiarity (knowing a person).
命题性知识 – 知道某事是如此的知识（know-that），区别于知道如何做（技能知识）和亲知知识（通过感觉认识）。把它与技能（骑车）或熟识（认识某人）区分开。
2. Perception: Direct Realism, Indirect Realism, and Idealism | 知觉：直接实在论、间接实在论与观念论
Theories of perception answer the question: what is the immediate object of awareness when we perceive the world?
知觉理论回答的问题是：我们感知世界时，意识的直接对象是什么？
Direct Realism – The view that we perceive physical objects directly, without any mental intermediary. The table I see is simply the real, mind-independent table. Illusions and hallucinations are the main challenges: a straw bent in water seems to undermine direct access.
直接实在论 – 认为我们直接感知物理对象，没有任何心理中介。我看到的桌子就是实在的、独立于心灵的桌子。错觉和幻觉是主要挑战：水中的筷子变弯似乎削弱了直接可及性。
Indirect Realism – The theory that we perceive mind-dependent sense-data, which are caused by and represent physical objects. Locke’s primary/secondary qualities support this. Remember ‘Veil of perception’: we are aware of sense-data, not objects directly. Russell’s ‘best hypothesis’ justifies belief in external world.
间接实在论 – 我们感知的是依赖心灵的感觉材料，这些感觉材料由物理对象引起并代表它们。洛克的第一物性/第二物性之分支持此论。记住“知觉之幕”：我们意识到的是感觉材料而非直接的对象。罗素的“最佳假说”辩护对外部世界的信念。
Idealism (Berkeley) – The metaphysical view that all that exists are minds and their ideas; physical objects are collections of ideas perceived by God. To be is to be perceived (‘esse est percipi’). Master this by linking ‘idealism’ to ‘idea-ism’ – only ideas are real.
观念论（贝克莱） – 形而上学观点：存在的只有心灵及其观念；物理对象是被上帝感知的观念集合。存在即被感知（’esse est percipi’）。把“观念论”与“唯观念”联系起来记忆——只有观念是实在的。
3. Knowledge and Scepticism | 知识与怀疑论
Sceptical arguments challenge the possibility of knowledge, and philosophical responses attempt to salvage our knowledge claims.
怀疑论的论证质疑知识的可能性，哲学回应试图维护我们的知识主张。
Scepticism – The view that we lack knowledge. Global scepticism applies to all beliefs; local scepticism targets specific areas. Descartes’ evil demon thought experiment is the classic global sceptical scenario. Note the spelling ‘sceptic’ (UK).
怀疑论 – 认为我们缺乏知识的观点。普遍怀疑论适用于所有信念；局部怀疑论针对特定领域。笛卡尔的恶魔思想实验是经典的普遍怀疑论情境。注意英式拼写 ‘sceptic’。
Brain in a Vat – A modern sceptical hypothesis: we could be brains in tanks being fed experiences by a supercomputer, with no way to know otherwise. Use the vivid image to remember the problem of radical doubt.
缸中之脑 – 现代怀疑论假说：我们可能是浸泡在缸中的大脑，由超级计算机输入体验，却无法察觉。借助这生动的图像记忆彻底怀疑的问题。
Reliabilism – A response to scepticism: knowledge is true belief produced by a reliable cognitive process. Even if we cannot defeat the sceptical hypothesis, if perception is in fact reliable, we know. Think ‘reliable = knowledge’ shortcut.
可靠主义 – 对怀疑论的回应：知识是由可靠的认知过程产生的真信念。即使无法驳倒怀疑论假说，只要感知过程事实上可靠，我们就有知识。记法：可靠=知识。
4. A Priori / A Posteriori and Related Distinctions | 先天/后天及相关区分
These distinctions classify how we acquire and justify knowledge and the nature of propositions.
这些区分分类知识获取和辩护的方式以及命题的性质。
A Priori – Knowledge justified independently of sense experience (e.g. ‘2+2=4’). Think ‘Prior to experience’.
先天知识 – 不依赖感觉经验而得到辩护的知识（如“2+2=4”）。记法：“先”于经验。
A Posteriori – Knowledge justified only through sense experience (e.g. ‘The cat is on the mat’). Think ‘Post-experience’.
后天知识 – 只能通过感觉经验辩护的知识（如“猫在垫子上”）。记法：经验之“后”。
Analytic – A proposition true in virtue of the meanings of words. ‘All bachelors are unmarried men.’ The predicate is contained in the subject. ‘No new information.’
分析命题 – 由词义而为真的命题。“所有单身汉都是未婚男性。”谓语包含在主语中。记忆：“不提供新信息”。
Synthetic – A proposition that is not analytic; its truth depends on how the world is. ‘The bachelor is sad.’ Think ‘Synthetic = adds something to the subject.’
综合命题 – 非分析的命题；其真值取决于世界状态。“这位单身汉很悲伤。”记法：“综合=为主语增添内容”。
Necessary – A proposition that could not be false; true in all possible worlds. ‘Triangles have three sides.’ Necessary truth often linked to a priori.
必然命题 – 不可能为假的命题；在所有可能世界中为真。“三角形有三条边。”必然真理常与先天相联系。
Contingent – A proposition that could be either true or false; true in some possible worlds and false in others. ‘The Eiffel Tower is in Paris.’ Link to ‘possible to conceive otherwise’.
偶然命题 – 可真可假的命题；在某些可能世界中为真，另一些中为假。“埃菲尔铁塔在巴黎。”记忆：可以设想其反面。
5. Moral Philosophy: Utilitarianism | 道德哲学：功利主义
Utilitarianism is a consequentialist ethical theory that judges the morality of actions solely by their outcomes, typically measured in happiness or pleasure.
功利主义是后果主义伦理学理论，仅依据行为结果评判道德，通常以幸福或快乐为尺度。
Principle of Utility – The greatest happiness principle: an action is right if it promotes the greatest happiness of the greatest number. Bentham: ‘nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure.’ Remember ‘max utility = max happiness minus pain’.
功利原则 – 最大幸福原则：一个行为若能最大化最大多数人的幸福，即为正当。边沁：“自然将人类置于痛苦与快乐两位主权者的统治之下。”记法：最大功利=最大幸福减痛苦。
Hedonic Calculus – Bentham’s method for quantifying pleasure using seven factors: intensity, duration, certainty, propinquity, fecundity, purity, extent. Acronym ‘IDC PFPE’ (Intensity, Duration, Certainty, Propinquity, Fecundity, Purity, Extent). Practice ordering them.
快乐计算 – 边沁量化快乐的方法，考虑七个因素：强度、持续时间、确定性、远近、丰产度、纯度、范围。首字母缩写 ‘IDC PFPE’ 助记。练习按序排列。
Act Utilitarianism – Considers each individual action on its own. If telling this particular lie maximises utility, it is right. Rule of thumb: ‘case-by-case calculation’.
行为功利主义 – 对每个单独行为逐案计算。如果说这个具体的谎言能最大化功利，它就是正确的。经验法则：“逐案计算”。
Rule Utilitarianism – Focuses on rules that, if generally followed, maximise utility. Mill defended strong rule utilitarianism: moral rules should never be violated. Remember: ‘Rules over individual acts.’
规则功利主义 – 着眼于普遍遵循后能最大化功利的规则。密尔维护强规则功利主义：道德规则绝不应被违背。记法：“规则优先于单独行为”。
Higher and Lower Pleasures (Mill) – Mill distinguishes intellectual/mental pleasures (higher) from bodily pleasures (lower). ‘It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied.’ Use the pig vs. Socrates image.
高级快乐与低级快乐（密尔） – 密尔区分心智/智能快乐（高级）与肉体快乐（低级）。“宁做不满足的人，不做满足的猪。”用猪与苏格拉底的形象记忆。
6. Kantian Deontology | 康德义务论
For Kant, morality is derived from pure reason and the concept of duty, not from consequences.
对康德而言，道德源于纯粹理性和义务概念，而非后果。
Good Will – The only thing good without qualification. It is the will to do one’s duty for the sake of duty. ‘No tool can be used to achieve good will; it is an end.’ Think ‘GW’ as the core.
善良意志 – 唯一无条件的善。是为了义务本身而履行义务的意志。“善良意志不能作为手段；它是目的。”记法：“善意志”是核心。
Categorical Imperative (First Formulation) – ‘Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.’ Test contradictions in conception or in will. Use the lying promise example: if everyone lied, the institution of promising collapses.
定言命令（第一公式） – “只按照你同时愿意它成为一条普遍法则的准则去行动。”检查概念矛盾或意志矛盾。用虚假承诺例子记忆：如果人人都撒谎，承诺制度就会崩溃。
Hypothetical Imperative – A command of reason that applies only if you have a particular desire. ‘If you want to be healthy, you ought to exercise.’ Not moral. Distinguish from categorical by the ‘if’.
假言命令 – 仅适用于你有特定偏好的理性诫命。“如果你想健康，你就应当锻炼。”非道德性的。用“如果”来与定言命令区分。
Treat Humanity as an End (Second Formulation) – ‘Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of another, always at the same time as an end, never merely as a means.’ Respect rational nature. Helpful mnemonic: ‘End, not merely means’ (E≠M).
人是目的（第二公式） – “你要如此行动，即无论是你的人格中的人性，还是其他任何一个人的人格中的人性，你在任何时候都同时当作目的，绝不仅仅当作手段来使用。”尊重理性本性。助记符：目的≠手段（E≠M）。
7. Aristotelian Virtue Ethics | 亚里士多德德性伦理学
Aristotle focuses on character and flourishing rather than rules or consequences. Key terms are derived from Greek.
亚里士多德关注品格与繁盛，而非规则或后果。关键术语源于希腊文。
Eudaimonia – Often translated as ‘happiness’ or ‘flourishing’; the final end of human life, achieved by living virtuously. It is activity of the soul in accordance with virtue. Think ‘EU-daimonia’ – true well-being.
幸福（Eudaimonia） – 常译为“幸福”或“繁盛”；人生的终极目的，通过有德性的生活实现。是灵魂合乎德性的活动。记法：真正的“好生活”。
Virtue (Arete) – A character trait that lies in a mean between two vices (excess and deficiency). Courage is the mean between rashness and cowardice. Use the golden mean spectrum: Vice of excess <-- Virtue --> Vice of deficiency.
德性（Arete） – 介于两种恶（过度与不及）之间的品格特质。勇敢是鲁莽与怯懦的中道。用“黄金中道”谱来记忆：过度之恶 <— 德性 —> 不及之恶。
Phronesis (Practical Wisdom) – The intellectual virtue that allows a person to determine the right course of action in particular circumstances. It is the master virtue. Think ‘practical phone-sis’ – calling upon judgment.
实践智慧（Phronesis） – 使人能在特定情境中判定正确行为途径的理智德性。它是主导德性。联想法：像一位聪明的“实践顾问”作出判断。
The Function Argument (Ergon) – Human good resides in the function of a human being: rational activity of the soul. If we perform our function well (with virtue), we achieve eudaimonia. ‘Ergon’ sounds like ‘work’ – our distinctive work is reasoning.
功能论证（Ergon） – 人的善在于人的功能：灵魂的理性活动。如果我们出色地发挥功能（合乎德性），就实现幸福。“Ergon”听起来像“工作”——我们特有的工作是理性。
8. Metaphysics of God: Ontological Argument | 上帝形而上学：本体论论证
The ontological argument attempts to deduce God’s existence from the very concept of God as a perfect being.
本体论论证试图从上帝作为最完美存在的概念本身演绎出上帝的存在。
Anselm’s Definition – God is ‘that than which nothing greater can be conceived’. Even the fool who denies God’s existence understands this definition. Remember ‘TTWNGCBC’ (That Than Which Nothing Greater Can Be Conceived) as a tongue-twisting mnemonic.
安瑟伦的定义 – 上帝是“无法设想比之更伟大者”。即使否认上帝存在的愚人也理解这一定义。用缩写 ‘TTWNGCBC’（无法更伟大者）作为绕口令般的助记符。
Gaunilo’s Island – The perfect island objection: if we conceive of the greatest imaginable island, it does not follow that such an island exists in reality. Gaunilo claims Anselm’s logic can be mirrored for any perfect thing. Think ‘Lost island of perfection’.
高尼罗的岛屿 – 最完美岛屿反驳：如果我们设想一个所能想象的最伟大岛屿，并不能推出该岛屿在现实中存在。高尼罗称安瑟伦的逻辑可套用于任何完美事物。记法：“迷失的完美岛”。
Descartes’ Version – Existence is a perfection; God as a supremely perfect being must possess the perfection of existence, just as a triangle must have three angles. Existence is a predicate. Remember: ‘Existence is a property like triangularity’.
笛卡尔的论证 – 存在是一个完善；上帝作为具有一切完善的至高存在者，必具有存在这一完善，正如三角形必有三个角。存在是一个谓词。记法：“存在如同三角形性质一样的属性”。
Kant’s Objection – Existence is not a real predicate; it adds nothing to the concept of a thing. A hundred real thalers contain no more than a hundred possible thalers conceptually. Use ‘100 real coins vs. 100 imagined coins’ to see the point.
康德的反对 – 存在不是实在的谓词；它不给事物的概念增加任何东西。一百个真实的塔勒在概念上并不多于一百个可能的塔勒。用“一百真币 vs. 一百想象币”来理解。
9. Cosmological Argument | 宇宙论论证
Cosmological arguments reason from the existence of the cosmos or its features to the existence of God as first cause or necessary being.
宇宙论论证从宇宙或其特征的存在，推论出上帝作为第一因或必然存在者的存在。
Aquinas’ First Way (Motion) – Everything in motion is moved by something else; the chain cannot regress infinitely, so there must be a first unmoved mover (God). Summarised as ‘Actuality requires a mover’.
阿奎那的第一路（运动） – 凡运动者皆为他物所动；追溯运动不能无穷倒退，故必有一个不动的第一推动者（上帝）。可概括为“现实需要推动者”。
Aquinas’ Second Way (Causation) – Every event has a cause; infinite causal regress is impossible, so there must be a first uncaused cause. Link to domino effect: without a first finger, no domino falls.
阿奎那的第二路（因果） – 每一事件皆有原因；无限因果回溯不可能，故必有一个第一无原因之因。联想多米诺效应：没有第一指推，骨牌不会倒。
Kalam Cosmological Argument – Whatever begins to exist has a cause; the universe began to exist; therefore the universe has a cause (God). William Lane Craig popularised it. Watch for ‘begins to exist’ clause – avoids infinite regress issue.
卡拉姆宇宙论论证 – 凡开始存在的事物都有其原因；宇宙开始存在；故宇宙有原因（上帝）。威廉·莱恩·克雷格推广之。留意“开始存在”条款——规避了无限回溯问题。
Hume’s Objection (Fallacy of Composition) – Just because each part of the universe has a cause does not entail the whole universe has a cause. Example: every human has a mother, but humanity as a whole does not have a mother.
休谟的反对（组合谬误） – 宇宙的每一部分有原因，不蕴含宇宙整体有原因。例子：每人皆有母亲，但人类整体没有母亲。
10. Teleological (Design) Argument | 目的论（设计）论证
The teleological argument infers a designer from the appearance of order, purpose, and complexity in the natural world.
目的论论证从自然界中呈现的秩序、目的和复杂性推断设计者的存在。
Paley’s Watch Analogy – If we find a watch on a heath, its intricate parts working together for a purpose compel us to infer a watchmaker. Likewise, the complexity of natural organisms implies a divine designer. Remember ‘Watch>Watchmaker : World>Worldmaker’.
佩利的钟表类比 – 若在荒原发现一块表，其精妙零件协同工作必然让人推断钟表匠存在。同样，生物复杂性暗示神圣设计者。记法：“表→制表匠：世界→造世主”。
Hume’s Criticism (Philo) – The analogy between the universe and a machine is weak; the world resembles more a living animal or vegetable. Also, even if a designer, it does not prove the God of classical theism. Think ‘limited analogy = limited conclusion’.
休谟的批评（菲洛） – 宇宙与机器的类比薄弱；世界更像活的动物或植物。而且，即使承认设计者，也不能证明古典有神论的上帝。记住：“有限的类比尔，有限的结论”。
Evolution by Natural Selection – Darwin provided a scientific alternative: apparent design can be explained through random variation and natural selection without a designer. The eye’s complexity arose gradually. Remember ‘Blind watchmaker’ metaphor (Dawkins).
自然选择进化论 – 达尔文提供了科学替代解释：看似设计可以通过随机变异和自然选择而无须设计者。眼睛的复杂性是逐渐形成的。记法：“盲眼钟表匠”隐喻（道金斯）。
11. The Problem of Evil | 恶的问题
The logical and evidential problems of evil challenge the coherence and probability of God’s existence given the reality of suffering.
逻辑恶的问题与证据恶的问题，从苦难现实出发挑战上帝存在的融贯性与可能性。
Inconsistent Triad (Mackie) – The three propositions – God is omnipotent, God is wholly good, and evil exists – appear logically inconsistent. If God is all-powerful and all-good, evil should not exist. But it does. Thus, one must be false.
不一致三元组（麦基） – 三个命题——上帝全能，上帝全善，恶存在——在逻辑上似不相容。若上帝全能全善，恶就不该存在。但恶存在，故必有一假。记忆：三者不能同时成立。
Free Will Defence (Plantinga) – A world containing free creatures who freely choose good is better than a world of automata. God cannot force free creatures to always choose good without removing free will. Thus, moral evil is the price of a greater good. Remember ‘Freedom > Clockwork’.
自由意志辩护（普兰丁格） – 包含能自由选择善的自由受造物的世界，优于自动机器的世界。上帝不能强制自由受造物永远选择善而不取消自由意志。故道德恶是更大善的代价。记法：“自由 > 发条玩具”。
Soul-making Theodicy (Hick) – The world is a vale of soul-making where suffering enables the development of virtues such as compassion, courage, and self-sacrifice, leading to a higher spiritual maturity. Think ‘gym for the soul’.
灵魂塑造神正论（希克） – 世界是灵魂塑造之谷，苦难使人能发展同情、勇敢和自我牺牲等美德，走向更高的灵性成熟。联想“心灵的健身馆”。
12. General Logical and Philosophical Toolkit | 通用逻辑与哲学工具箱
These terms recur across the entire specification and are essential for evaluating arguments.
这些术语贯穿整个考纲，对于论证评估不可或缺。
Deductive Argument – An argument intended to be valid: if premises true, conclusion must be true. Soundness = validity + true premises. Descartes’ ontological argument aims at deduction. Remember ‘Deductive = 100% guarantee’.
演绎论证 – 旨在有效的论证：若前提真，则结论必然真。可靠性=有效+所有前提皆真。笛卡尔本体论论证意在演绎。记法：“演绎=100%保证”。
Inductive Argument – An argument where premises make the conclusion probable but not certain. Paley’s design argument is inductive. Use ‘probability not certainty’. Abductive reasoning (inference to the best explanation) is a subset.
归纳论证 – 前提使结论很可能为真，但并不必然。佩利设计论证是归纳的。用“概率非必然”记忆。溯因推理（最佳说明推论）是其子类。
Begging the Question (Petitio Principii) – A circular argument where the conclusion is assumed in one of the premises. ‘God exists because the Bible says so, and the Bible is the word of God.’ Circularity alert.
窃取论点（乞题） – 结论已经暗中预设在前提出的循环论证。“上帝存在因为圣经如此说，而圣经是上帝的话语。”循环警告。
Reductio ad Absurdum – Reducing a proposition to an absurdity by showing its logical consequences lead to contradiction. Anselm uses this: assuming the fool’s denial leads to contradiction because a greater being can be conceived which exists. Think ‘reduce to absurdity’.
归谬法 – 通过展示一个命题的逻辑后果会导致矛盾，而将其归为荒谬的论证方法。安瑟伦运用此法：假设愚人否定上帝会引向矛盾，因为可设想一更伟大且在现实中存在的存在者。记法：“导至荒谬”。
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