📚 Year 12 SQA Geography: A Quick-Reference Vocabulary Memorisation Guide | Year 12 SQA 地理：词汇术语速记指南
For SQA Higher Geography, mastering terminology is half the battle. This guide pairs key terms with concise English explanations followed by matching Chinese translations, designed to speed up your revision and deepen your understanding of physical and human environments.
对 SQA Higher 地理来说，掌握术语是成功的一半。本指南将核心词汇配以简明的英文解释和对应的中文翻译，旨在加快你的复习速度，并加深对自然与人文环境的理解。
1. Atmospheric Processes and Weather | 大气过程与天气
Adiabatic cooling occurs when a parcel of air rises, expands, and cools without exchanging heat with its surroundings. The dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR) is approximately 10°C per 1000 m, while the saturated adiabatic lapse rate (SALR) is lower, around 6°C per 1000 m, because latent heat is released during condensation.
绝热冷却是指气块上升、膨胀并冷却而不与周围环境发生热量交换的过程。干绝热直减率约为每千米降温 10°C，而饱和绝热直减率较低，约每千米 6°C，因为在凝结过程中会释放潜热。
Anticyclones are high-pressure systems characterised by descending air, clear skies, and stable weather. In summer they bring warm, dry conditions; in winter they often produce frost and fog under clear nights.
反气旋是高压系统，特征为空气下沉、天空晴朗、天气稳定。夏季带来温暖干燥天气；冬季在晴夜下常产生霜冻和雾。
Frontal rainfall happens when a warm air mass meets a cold air mass; the less dense warm air is forced to rise over the cold air, cools adiabatically, and forms clouds and rain along the front.
锋面降雨发生在暖气团与冷气团相遇时；密度较低的暖空气被迫爬升到冷空气之上，绝热冷却，沿锋面形成云层和降水。
2. Hydrological Cycle and Rivers | 水文循环与河流
Infiltration capacity is the maximum rate at which soil can absorb water. When rainfall intensity exceeds infiltration capacity, overland flow (surface runoff) occurs, contributing to rapid river level rises.
入渗能力是土壤吸收水分的最大速率。当降雨强度超过入渗能力时，产生地表径流，导致河水水位快速上涨。
Base flow is the sustained, groundwater-fed part of streamflow that maintains river levels between rain events. A river with a high base flow has a less flashy hydrograph.
基流是降雨间期由地下水补给的持续径流部分，维持河流水位。基流高的河流其流量过程线较平缓。
River discharge is the volume of water passing a point per second, calculated as cross-sectional area x velocity (m³/s). A storm hydrograph plots discharge against time and reveals the lag time between peak rainfall and peak discharge.
河流流量是每秒通过某点的水体积，计算为截面积乘以流速（立方米/秒）。暴雨流量过程线绘制流量与时间，揭示降雨峰值与流量峰值之间的滞时。
3. Glacial and Coastal Landscapes | 冰川与海岸地貌
Corrie (cirque) is an armchair-shaped hollow formed by nivation and rotational glacial erosion, with a steep backwall and a rock lip. A tarn may fill the corrie after glaciation.
冰斗是由雪蚀和旋转冰川侵蚀形成的扶手椅状凹地，具有陡峭的后壁和岩槛。冰川消退后冰斗可能积水成湖。
Abrasion (coastal) refers to the wearing away of cliff faces by rock fragments hurled against them by waves, whereas hydraulic action is the force of water itself compressing air in cracks and breaking rock.
磨蚀（海岸）是指波浪携带碎石撞击崖面使其磨损，而水力作用则是水体本身的压力压缩缝隙中的空气并破碎岩石。
Longshore drift is the movement of sediment along a beach in a zigzag pattern, driven by waves hitting the shore at an oblique angle. It creates spits and bars where coastline orientation changes.
沿岸漂移是沉积物在波浪斜射作用下沿滩面呈之字形移动的过程。在海岸线方向改变处形成沙嘴和离岸坝。
4. Soil Formation and Characteristics | 土壤形成与特征
Leaching is the downward removal of minerals and nutrients in solution from the upper soil horizons, common in humid climates. Podzolisation is a severe form of leaching under coniferous forest, leaving a grey, ashy E horizon.
淋溶作用是指养分矿物质从土壤上层被溶液下移带走，在湿润气候下常见。灰化作用是在针叶林下的一种强烈淋溶，留下灰白色的 E 层。
Gleying occurs in waterlogged soils where anaerobic conditions reduce iron compounds to a blue-grey colour. Gley soils are typical of tundra and poorly drained lowlands.
潜育化发生在渍水土壤中，缺氧环境使铁化合物还原成蓝灰色。潜育土常见于苔原和排水不良的低地。
Soil texture refers to the proportion of sand, silt, and clay particles. Loam is an ideal mixture for agriculture, balancing drainage, aeration, and nutrient retention.
土壤质地指砂粒、粉粒和粘粒的比例。壤土是农业理想的混合质地，兼顾排水、通气和保肥能力。
5. Population Dynamics and Migration | 人口动态与迁移
Crude birth rate (CBR) is the annual number of live births per 1000 population. Crude death rate (CDR) is the annual number of deaths per 1000. Their difference gives the rate of natural increase.
粗出生率是每年每千人活产数。粗死亡率是每年每千人死亡数。两者之差为自然增长率。
Push–pull factors explain migration: push factors (e.g. unemployment, conflict) drive people from an area; pull factors (e.g. job opportunities, safety) attract them to a new location.
推拉因素解释迁移：推力因素（如失业、冲突）将人们推出一个地区；拉力因素（如就业机会、安全）将他们吸引到新地点。
Dependency ratio compares the non-working population (under 15 and over 64) to the working-age population (15–64). A high dependency ratio strains health and education services.
抚养比将非劳动人口（15岁以下和64岁以上）与劳动年龄人口（15–64 岁）比较。高抚养比给医疗和教育服务带来压力。
6. Urban Settlement Patterns | 城市聚落模式
Central business district (CBD) is the commercial and economic heart of a city, with high land values, tall buildings, and peak pedestrian flows. Functions include retail, finance, and entertainment.
中央商务区是城市的商业经济核心，地价高昂，高楼林立，人流量最大。功能包括零售、金融和娱乐。
Urban sprawl is the uncontrolled outward expansion of low-density residential and commercial development, often consuming greenfield sites and increasing car dependency.
城市蔓延是低密度住宅和商业开发不受控制地向外扩张，常占用绿地，并加剧对汽车的依赖。
Gentrification is the process by which wealthier residents move into a rundown inner-city area, renovating property and changing its social character. It can displace existing low-income communities.
绅士化是较富裕的居民迁入衰败的内城区，翻新房产并改变其社会特征的过程。它可能导致原低收入社区被排挤。
7. Agricultural Systems and Rural Land Use | 农业系统与乡村土地利用
Intensive agriculture uses high inputs of labour, capital, or technology per unit area to maximise yields. Examples include market gardening and rice paddy cultivation.
集约化农业在单位面积土地上投入大量劳力、资本或技术以最大化产出。例子包括商业菜园和水稻种植。
Extensive agriculture spreads over large areas with relatively low inputs per hectare, such as nomadic herding or wheat farming on the prairies.
粗放型农业分布在大面积土地上，每公顷投入相对较低，如游牧或北美大草原的小麦种植。
Agribusiness is the large-scale, corporate-controlled sector of farming that integrates production, processing, distribution, and marketing, often operating across national borders.
农业综合经营是大规模、由企业控制的农业部门，将生产、加工、分销和销售一体化，常跨国界运作。
8. Industrial Location and Change | 工业区位与变迁
Weber’s least cost theory explains industrial location based on minimising three costs: transport, labour, and agglomeration economies. A factory will locate where these total costs are lowest.
韦伯的工业区位论通过最小化三种成本来解释区位选择：运输成本、劳动力成本和集聚经济。工厂会选择总成本最低的地点。
Footloose industry is not tied to raw materials or heavy transport, so it can locate in a wide range of places. High-tech and software firms are typical examples.
自由选址工业不受原材料或重型运输的束缚，因此可在许多地方布局。高科技和软件公司是典型例子。
De-industrialisation is the decline in manufacturing jobs and output in a region, often leading to structural unemployment and a shift towards service-based employment.
去工业化是一个地区制造业就业和产出下降的过程，常导致结构性失业和向服务型就业的转变。
9. Development and Globalisation | 发展与全球化
Gross National Income (GNI) per capita is the total value of goods and services produced by a country plus net income from abroad, divided by its population. It is a key development indicator.
人均国民总收入是一个国家生产的商品和服务总值加上来自国外的净收入，除以其人口数。它是关键的发展指标。
Human Development Index (HDI) combines life expectancy, education (mean and expected years of schooling), and GNI per capita to measure a country’s socio-economic development on a 0 to 1 scale.
人类发展指数综合预期寿命、教育（平均和预期受教育年限）和人均国民总收入，以 0 到 1 的尺度衡量国家的社会经济发展水平。
Transnational corporation (TNC) is a firm that operates in multiple countries, coordinating production and sales globally. It benefits from economies of scale and differential labour costs.
跨国公司是在多个国家经营、全球协调生产和销售的公司。它受益于规模经济和不同的劳动力成本。
10. Resource Management and Sustainability | 资源管理与可持续性
Renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, hydro, and biomass can be replenished on a human timescale. Their exploitation must still be managed sustainably to avoid environmental degradation.
可再生能源如太阳能、风能、水力和生物质能在人类时间尺度上可再生。其开发利用仍需可持续管理以避免环境退化。
Ecological footprint measures the biologically productive land and water area required to supply the resources a population consumes and to absorb its waste. It is expressed in global hectares per person.
生态足迹衡量供养一个种群所消耗资源并吸纳其废物所需的生产性土地和水域面积，单位为人均全球公顷。
Water stress occurs when the annual supply of fresh water per person falls below 1700 m³, leading to competition and potential conflict. Physical and economic water scarcity are two distinct types.
当人均年淡水供应量低于 1700 立方米时会出现水压力，导致竞争和潜在冲突。物理性缺水和经济性缺水是两种不同类型。
11. Geographical Skills and Techniques | 地理技能与方法
Ordnance Survey (OS) maps at 1:50 000 or 1:25 000 scale use six-figure grid references for pinpoint locations. Contour lines show height, and their spacing indicates gradient: closer lines mean steeper slopes.
比例尺 1:50 000 或 1:25 000 的英国地形测量地图用六位数字网格坐标精确定位。等高线显示高度，其疏密指示坡度：线越密集，坡越陡。
GIS (Geographic Information System) stores, analyses, and displays spatial data in layers. Overlay analysis helps identify relationships, such as flood risk zones combining rainfall, elevation, and land use layers.
地理信息系统以图层形式存储、分析和展示空间数据。叠加分析有助于识别关系，如综合降雨、高程和土地利用图层来确定洪水风险区。
Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient is a statistical test used to measure the strength and direction of association between two ranked variables. A value near +1 indicates a strong positive correlation.
斯皮尔曼等级相关系数是衡量两个排序变量之间关联强度和方向的统计检验。数值接近 +1 表示强正相关。
12. Exam Command Words and Terminology | 考试指令词与术语
‘Describe’ requires a factual account of what you see or what is happening, without explanation. For a graph, state the general trend and any anomalies, quoting data.
“描述”要求对所见或正在发生的事情进行事实陈述，无需解释。对于图表，要陈述总体趋势和任何异常，并引用数据。
‘Explain’ asks you to give reasons, causes, or mechanisms. Link processes to outcomes, using because or therefore statements supported by geographical theory.
“解释”要求给出原因、起因或机制。将过程与结果联系起来，使用借助地理理论支撑的”因为”或”因此”句式。
‘Evaluate’ means weigh up evidence, make a judgement, and discuss both strengths and weaknesses. Always end with a justified conclusion.
“评价”意味着权衡证据、做出判断，并讨论优点和缺点。始终以有依据的结论结尾。
Published by TutorHao | SQA Geography Revision Series | aleveler.com
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