📚 Year 12 WJEC Philosophy: Quick Memorisation Guide to Key Terms | WJEC 哲学关键术语速记指南
Welcome to your fast-track revision companion for Year 12 WJEC Philosophy. This guide breaks down the essential terminology into bite-sized explanations paired with power-packed memory shortcuts. Instead of dry definitions, you will find vivid associations, root-word clues and quirky mnemonics that make even the trickiest concepts stick. Whether you are wrestling with epistemology, moral philosophy or philosophy of religion, these pages will help you lock terms into long-term memory — so you can recall them confidently under exam pressure.
欢迎使用 Year 12 WJEC 哲学快速复习伴侣。本指南将核心术语分解成小块解释，并配上强有力的记忆捷径。你不会看到干巴巴的定义，取而代之的是生动的联想、词根线索和俏皮的助记法，让最棘手的概念也能牢牢记住。无论你正在苦战认识论、道德哲学还是宗教哲学，这些页面都将帮你把术语关进长期记忆——让你在考试压力下也能自信地回忆起来。
1. A Priori vs A Posteriori | 先验与后验
“A priori” knowledge is independent of experience — think prior to checking. The Latin root “a priori” literally means “from the earlier”. You can remember it by the phrase “I know it prior to looking”. For example, 2+2=4 is true without needing to count apples. In contrast, “a posteriori” knowledge depends on experience — post-observation. The clue is “post” like “postman” delivering new data. A posteriori truths are discovered, not deduced.
“先验”知识独立于经验——想想在你核实之前（prior）就知道了。拉丁词根“a priori”字面意思是“来自更早的”。你可以用“看之前我就知道了（prior）”这句话来记忆。例如，2+2=4，无需数苹果就知道为真。相反，“后验”知识依赖于经验——观察之后（post）才知道。线索是“post”像“postman 邮递员”那样送来新数据。后验真理是通过发现得来，而非推导出来的。
- Memory link: A PRIori = PRIor to senses; A POSTeriori = POST experience.
- 记忆链接：先验 = 在感官之前；后验 = 在经验之后。
2. Analytic vs Synthetic | 分析命题与综合命题
An analytic proposition is true just by understanding the words — the predicate is contained in the subject. The classic example is “All bachelors are unmarried”. Imagine a bachelor inside an unmarried bubble; the truth is “in” the bubble (analytic). A synthetic proposition adds new information not contained in the subject. “The bachelor is sad” goes beyond the definition. The Greek root “syn-” means together, “thesis” means placing — you place concepts together that were once separate.
分析命题仅凭理解词语即可为真——谓词包含在主词之中。经典例子是“所有单身汉都是未婚的”。想象一个单身汉被关在未婚的气泡里；真理就在气泡“内”（分析）。综合命题则添加了主词不包含的新信息。“这位单身汉很难过”超出了定义。希腊词根“syn-”意为一起，“thesis”意为放置——你将原本分离的概念放在一起。
- Memory trick: Analytic = the concept is already inside the box. Synthetic = you synthesise a new connection.
- 记忆窍门：分析 = 概念已经在盒子里。综合 = 你合成（synthesise）一个新的联系。
3. Necessary vs Contingent Truths | 必然真理与偶然真理
A necessary truth could not have been false in any possible world. “2+2=4” is necessary — it holds no matter how reality was set up. Picture it as a brick wall that cannot be knocked down. A contingent truth is true in our world but could have been false. “The sky is blue” is contingent: the sky could have been green. Think of contingent as depending on circumstances (contingencies). The phrase “it could have been otherwise” is your test.
必然真理在所有可能世界里都不可能是假的。“2+2=4”就是必然的——无论现实如何设置，它都成立。把它想象成一面砖墙，怎么都推不倒。偶然真理在我们的世界里是真，但本可以是假的。“天空是蓝色的”是偶然的：天空本可能是绿色的。把偶然看作是依赖环境（contingency）。碰到“它本可以是别的样子”的命题，就是偶然真理。
- Memory phrase: Necessary = No Negation possible; Contingent = Could Change.
- 记忆短语：必然 = 不可否定；偶然 = 可能改变。
4. Realism vs Anti‑Realism | 实在论与反实在论
Realism holds that something exists mind-independently. For example, moral realism says moral facts are real, like mountains. Picture a real mountain that stays there even when no one looks. Anti-realism denies this: the mountain is only a shared idea. In ontology, the anti-realist slogan is “to be is to be perceived”. The prefix “anti-” means “against”, so anti-realism is against the idea of mind-independent existence. Link it to anti-reality — reality depends on a mind.
实在论主张某物独立于心灵而存在。例如，道德实在论说，道德事实就像山一样真实。想象一座真实的山，哪怕没人看，它也在那里。反实在论则否定这一点：那座山不过是一个共享的观念。在存在论中，反实在论的口号是“存在就是被感知”。前缀“anti-”意为“反对”，所以反实在论就是反对独立于心灵的存在。把它联系到anti-reality——现实依赖于心灵。
- Memory clue: Realism = Reality exists by itself; Anti-realism = All is in the mind.
- 记忆线索：实在论 = 现实独立存在；反实在论 = 一切都在心中。
5. The Correspondence Theory of Truth | 真理的符合论
This theory states that a belief is true if it corresponds to a fact in the world. The statement “The cat is on the mat” is true exactly when, in reality, the cat is on the mat. Think of a mirror: truth should mirror reality. The verb “correspond” literally means “co-respond” — the belief and the fact “answer” each other. If there is a mismatch, the belief is false.
该理论认为，一个信念如果符合世界中的事实，那就是真的。“猫在垫子上”这句话为真，当且仅当现实中猫在垫子上。把它想成一面镜子：真理应当映照现实。动词“correspond”字面意是“共同回应”——信念和事实彼此“应答”。如果不匹配，信念便是假的。
- Memory aid: Correspondence = co‑respondence between mind and world.
- 记忆辅助：符合 = 心灵与世界之间的共同回应。
6. Coherence Theory of Truth | 真理的融贯论
In contrast, the coherence theory claims that a belief is true if it coheres with a system of other beliefs. It is like a jigsaw puzzle: a piece is “right” only if it fits. No single belief is checked against raw reality; instead the whole web of beliefs must hang together without contradiction. The word co‑here suggests sticking together. Think of glue (cohesion) keeping all ideas connected.
相比之下，融贯论主张，一个信念若能与一个其他信念的系统融贯，那它就是真的。这就像拼图：一块拼图只有在契合时才“正确”。没有任何孤立的信念直接用原始现实来检验；相反，整张信念之网必须无矛盾地彼此衔接。co‑here 这个词暗示粘在一起。想象胶水（内聚力）把所有观念连在一起。
- Memory shorthand: Coherence = Co‑hesion among beliefs. No piece stands alone.
- 记忆简记：融贯 = 信念之间的内聚力。没有任何碎片是孤立的。
7. Utilitarianism: Act vs Rule | 功利主义：行为与规则
Utilitarianism says the right act maximises happiness (utility). The term comes from “utility”, meaning usefulness for producing pleasure. To spot the difference between Act and Rule utilitarianism, think of act = action: you judge each individual action directly. Rule utilitarianism judges rules: adopt rules that, if generally followed, maximise happiness. Use the memory hook: Act = particular Action; Rule = general Recipe for happiness.
功利主义主张，正当的行为是最大化幸福（功利）的行为。该术语源于“utility”，意即产生快乐的效用。要分辨行为功利主义和规则功利主义，可以想act = 具体行为：你直接评判每一个个体行动。规则功利主义评判的是规则：采纳那些如果被普遍遵循就能最大化幸福的规则。记忆钩子：行为功利 = 具体行动；规则功利 = 幸福的总食谱。
- Quick test: Act utilitarian asks “Does this deed maximise happiness?” Rule utilitarian asks “Does this rule, if everyone followed it, maximise happiness?”
- 快速测试：行为功利主义者问“这个行为能最大化幸福吗？”规则功利主义者问“如果所有人都遵守这条规则，能最大化幸福吗？”
8. Deontology: Duty and the Categorical Imperative | 义务论：责任与定言命令
Deontology (from Greek “deon” = duty) focuses on moral rules and duties, not consequences. The key phrase is duty-bound. Kant’s Categorical Imperative commands absolutely, without “ifs”. One formulation: “Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.” Remember categorical = no exceptions (think “categorically deny”), unlike a hypothetical imperative (“If you want X, do Y”). Test a maxim by asking: could everyone act on it without contradiction? If not, it is impermissible.
义务论（源自希腊语“deon”= 义务）关注道德规则和义务，而非后果。关键短语是被义务约束。康德的定言命令发布绝对的命令，没有“如果”。其表述之一是：“只按照你同时能够意愿它成为普遍法则的准则去行动。”记住定言 = 没有例外（想想“断然否认”），不像假言命令（“如果你想要 X，就做 Y”）那样有条件。检验一个准则时问自己：每个人都能依此行动而不造成矛盾吗？如果不能，就不被允许。
- Memory trick: Deontology = Duty‑ontology (the study of duty). Categorical = Cat‑ego‑rical — imagine a cat that obeys rules without exception.
- 记忆窍门：义务论 = 义务之学（Duty-ontology）。定言 = Cat‑ego‑rical——想象一只猫无条件遵守规则。
9. Virtue Ethics: Eudaimonia and the Golden Mean | 美德伦理学：幸福与中庸之道
Virtue ethics shifts the focus from acts to character. The ultimate goal is eudaimonia (human flourishing), not mere pleasure. Aristotle’s Golden Mean is the virtuous middle between extremes: courage lies between cowardice and recklessness. To memorise, think of Goldilocks — not too hot, not too cold. “Eu‑dai‑monia” sounds like “you-die-moan-ia”, but better link it to “you thrive”. Virtues are stable dispositions to choose the mean.
美德伦理学将焦点从行动转向品格。最终目标是eudaimonia（人的昌盛），而非仅仅是快乐。亚里士多德的中庸之道是极端之间的有德中间点：勇气介于怯懦和鲁莽之间。记忆时，想想金发姑娘——不烫不冷刚刚好。“Eu‑dai‑monia”听起来像“you-die-moan-ia”，但更好的联想是“你茁壮成长”。德性就是选择中庸的稳定倾向。
- Quick recall: Virtue = Vice between two vices. Eudaimonia = Eu‑ (good) + daimon (spirit) = good life.
- 快速回忆：美德 = 两个恶习之间的善。Eudaimonia = Eu-（好）+ daimon（灵魂）= 好生活。
10. Meta‑ethics: Cognitivism vs Non‑cognitivism | 元伦理学：认知主义与非认知主义
Cognitivism says moral statements express beliefs that can be true or false — they are truth-apt. For example, “Murder is wrong” makes a claim about the world. Non-cognitivism denies this: moral language expresses emotions or commands, not facts. The “Boo/Hurrah” theory suggests saying “Murder is wrong” is like shouting “Boo!” at murder. Remember cogni‑tivism = cognition, i.e. genuine knowledge claims. For non-cognitivism, imagine moral talk as cheerleading, not describing.
认知主义认为，道德陈述表达能够为真或假的信念——它们是能具有真值的。例如，“杀人是错误的”就是关于世界的一个断言。非认知主义否认这点：道德语言表达的是情感或命令，而非事实。“嘘/好哇”理论认为，说“杀人是错误的”就像对杀人喊“嘘！”。记忆时，cogni‑tivism = 认知，即真正的知识断言。对于非认知主义，想象道德谈说如同喝彩，而非描述。
- Memory hook: Cognitivism = Cognitive claims (true/false). Non-cognitivism = No‑cognition, just expression.
- 记忆钩子：认知主义 = 认知性断言（真/假）。非认知主义 = 非认知，只是表达。
11. Theism and the Divine Attributes | 有神论与神圣属性
Theism is belief in a personal God with specific attributes: omnipotent (all‑powerful), omniscient (all‑knowing), omnibenevolent (all‑good), and eternal. Break these down through Latin roots: omni = all; potens = powerful; sciens = knowing; benevolent = well‑wishing. A quick visual: imagine a giant “Omni‑god” wearing a cape with these four words stitched on. Theism also typically includes creatorship and interaction with the world. Contrast with deism (a non‑intervening God) and pantheism (God is the universe).
有神论是信仰一位具有特定属性的位格神：全能（omnipotent）、全知（omniscient）、全善（omnibenevolent）和永恒。通过拉丁词根来拆解：omni = 全；potens = 大能；sciens = 知晓；benevolent = 善意。一个快速图像：想象一位巨大的“全能神”，披着斗篷，上面缝着这四个词。有神论通常还包括创造者和与世界互动。对比自然神论（神不干预）和泛神论（神即宇宙）。
- Memory formula: Tri‑omni God = O‑O‑O (Omnipotent, Omniscient, Omnibenevolent).
- 记忆公式：三全神 = O-O-O（全能、全知、全善）。
12. The Problem of Evil: Logical vs Evidential | 恶的问题：逻辑性与证据性
The problem of evil challenges the existence of a tri‑omni God given the presence of suffering. The logical problem states that the coexistence of God and evil is a contradiction — like a square circle. The evidential problem argues that the sheer amount and distribution of evil makes God’s existence unlikely. To remember, think logical = impossible puzzle; evidential = because the evidence stacks up. Key terminology: moral evil (caused by free will), natural evil (caused by nature). Theodicies attempt to justify God’s ways.
恶的问题对一位三全神的存在提出挑战，因为世间存在苦难。逻辑性问题称，神与恶的共存是矛盾的——就像方的圆。证据性问题则论证，恶的数量与分布使得神的存在极不可能。记忆时，想逻辑 = 不可能的谜题；证据 = 因为证据堆起来了。关键术语：道德恶（由自由意志所致）、自然恶（由自然所致）。神义论试图为神的作为辩护。
- Quick label: Logical = contradiction; Evidential = probability against God.
- 快速标签：逻辑性 = 矛盾；证据性 = 概率上反对神。
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