📚 Year 12 CAIE Psychology: Key Terms Quick Memory Guide | Year 12 CAIE 心理学：核心术语速记指南
Mastering the terminology in Year 12 CAIE Psychology is the first step to scoring high marks. This guide breaks down essential terms from research methods, biological, cognitive, learning and social psychology, each with simple definitions and memory tips to help you recall them quickly during revision and exams.
掌握 Year 12 CAIE 心理学术语是取得高分的第一步。本指南将研究方法、生物心理学、认知心理学、学习心理学和社会心理学中的核心术语逐一拆解，每个术语都配有简明定义和记忆小窍门，帮助你在复习和考试中快速回忆。
1. Experimental Design Key Terms | 实验设计核心术语
Independent variable (IV) – The variable that the researcher manipulates to observe its effect on the dependent variable. Think ‘I change the IV’.
自变量 (IV) – 研究者操纵的变量，以观察其对因变量的影响。记住’我改变自变量’。
Dependent variable (DV) – The variable that is measured; it ‘depends’ on the IV. Remember ‘DV is the Data Value’.
因变量 (DV) – 被测量的变量；它依赖于自变量。可记作’DV就是数据值’。
Extraneous variable – Any variable other than the IV that might affect the DV if not controlled. Noise, temperature or participant mood are extraneous.
额外变量 – 除自变量外任何可能影响因变量的变量，若不控制会成为混淆变量。噪音、温度、被试者情绪都是额外变量。
Confounding variable – An extraneous variable that changes systematically with the IV, making it impossible to tell which caused the effect on the DV. Think ‘confound = confusing the cause’.
混淆变量 – 与自变量一起系统变化的额外变量，使研究者无法判断是因还是果。记作’混淆了原因’。
Random allocation – Participants are assigned to conditions purely by chance, so that individual differences are spread evenly. This prevents selection bias.
随机分配 – 被试者完全随机地分配到不同实验条件，使个体差异均匀分布，避免选择偏差。
Counterbalancing – Used in repeated measures designs; half the participants experience condition A then B, the other half B then A, to control order effects.
平衡设计 – 用于重复测量设计；半数被试者先A后B，另一半先B后A，以控制顺序效应。
2. Sampling and Ethics Terminology | 抽样与伦理术语
Random sampling – Every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected. This reduces bias but can be impractical.
随机抽样 – 目标人群中每个人都等概率被选中。减少偏差但实施困难。
Opportunity sampling – Recruiting participants who are conveniently available, e.g. students passing by the library. Quick but often unrepresentative.
机会抽样 – 选取最方便可得的被试者，如图书馆路过的学生。快速但缺乏代表性。
Informed consent – Participants are fully informed about the nature of the study and agree to take part. A core ethical principle.
知情同意 – 被试者充分了解研究性质后同意参与。是核心伦理准则。
Deception – When participants are misled or not fully informed about the true aims of the research. It must be justified and followed by thorough debriefing.
欺骗 – 被试者被误导或未被告知真实研究目的。必须被证明合理并进行充分的后续解释。
Confidentiality – Personal data must be protected and not disclosed without consent; participants usually remain anonymous.
保密 – 个人数据必须受到保护，未经同意不得泄露；被试者通常保持匿名。
3. Neurons and Synaptic Transmission | 神经元与突触传递
Neuron – A nerve cell that transmits information through electrical and chemical signals. Three main types: sensory, motor and relay.
神经元 – 通过电信号和化学信号传递信息的神经细胞。主要有感觉、运动和中间神经元三种。
Sensory neuron – Carries signals from sensory receptors (e.g. in skin, eyes) to the central nervous system. Think ‘S = sense in’.
感觉神经元 – 将信号从感受器（皮肤、眼睛等）传向中枢神经系统。记作’外向内’。
Motor neuron – Carries signals from the CNS to effectors (muscles and glands), causing a response. ‘M = move out’.
运动神经元 – 将信号从中枢神经系统传至效应器（肌肉和腺体），引发反应。记作’内向外’。
Synapse – The tiny gap between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite of another, where neurotransmitters are released.
突触 – 一个神经元的轴突末梢与另一个神经元树突之间的微小间隙，在这里释放神经递质。
Neurotransmitter – Chemical messenger that crosses the synapse and binds to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, causing excitation or inhibition. E.g. dopamine, serotonin.
神经递质 – 跨过突触并与突触后神经元受体结合的化学信使，引起兴奋或抑制。例如多巴胺、5-羟色胺。
Excitation – When a neurotransmitter increases the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will fire an action potential. Think ‘excite = go’.
兴奋 – 神经递质增加突触后神经元产生动作电位的可能性。可想成’点火’。
Inhibition – When a neurotransmitter decreases the likelihood of an action potential, making the neuron less likely to fire.
抑制 – 神经递质降低动作电位的可能性，使神经元不那么容易发放信号。
4. Brain Localisation and Function | 脑功能定位
Localisation of function – The theory that specific brain areas are specialised for particular functions. E.g. Broca’s area (speech production) is in the left frontal lobe.
功能定位 – 特定脑区负责特定功能的理论。例如布罗卡区（言语产生）位于左侧额叶。
Frontal lobe – Involved in decision-making, problem-solving, personality and voluntary movement. Remember ‘front = executive’.
额叶 – 参与决策、问题解决、人格和随意运动。可记’额=执行’。
Temporal lobe – Processes auditory information and is vital for memory. ‘Temporal = temple, sounds, memory’.
颞叶 – 处理听觉信息，对记忆至关重要。记作’颞=听觉记忆’。
Occipital lobe – Primarily responsible for vision. Think ‘O for occipital, O for optical’.
枕叶 – 主要负责视觉。记’枕=视觉’。
Parietal lobe – Integrates sensory information such as touch, temperature and spatial awareness. ‘Parietal = perception of sensations’.
顶叶 – 整合触觉、温度觉和空间知觉等感觉信息。记’顶=体感’。
Cerebellum – Coordinates balance, posture and fine motor movements. Remember ‘cerebellum = balance bell’.
小脑 – 协调平衡、姿势和精细运动。记’小脑像平衡铃’。
5. The Multi-Store Model of Memory | 记忆的多重储存模型
Sensory register – The first memory store, where information from the senses is held very briefly (less than a second) in its raw form. Iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory) are examples.
感觉登记 – 第一个记忆储存所，来自感官的信息以原始形式短暂保持（少于1秒）。如映像和声像记忆。
Short-term memory (STM) – The limited-capacity store (around 7±2 items) where information is held for about 18-30 seconds unless rehearsed. Coding is mostly acoustic.
短时记忆 (STM) – 容量有限（约7±2个单位）的储存，信息约保持18-30秒，除非进行复述。编码多为听觉。
Long-term memory (LTM) – The permanent store with potentially unlimited capacity and duration. Coding is mainly semantic.
长时记忆 (LTM) – 永久的储存，容量和持续时间几乎无限。编码主要为语义。
Rehearsal – The process of repeating information to keep it in STM and transfer it to LTM. Think ‘rehearsal = repeat to transfer’.
复述 – 重复信息以使其保持在短时记忆并转入长时记忆的过程。可记’复述=反复输送’。
Displacement – A cause of forgetting from STM – new incoming information pushes out older items because of limited capacity.
替代 – 短时记忆遗忘的原因之一——由于容量有限，新信息挤走旧信息。
6. Eyewitness Testimony Terms | 目击者证词术语
Leading question – A question that suggests a desired answer, e.g. ‘how fast was the car going when it smashed?’ can alter a witness’s memory. Loftus demonstrated this.
诱导性问题 – 暗示某种答案的提问，如’汽车撞毁时速度有多快？’可能改变目击者记忆。Loftus 予以证实。
Post-event discussion – When witnesses talk to each other after an event, they may contaminate each other’s memories by incorporating misinformation.
事件后讨论 – 目击者在事件后相互交谈，可能会因吸收错误信息而污染彼此的记忆。
Weapon focus – The tendency for witnesses to focus on a weapon during a crime, reducing their ability to recall other details like the perpetrator’s face.
武器焦点 – 目击者在犯罪过程中注意力集中在武器上，从而降低对其他细节（如罪犯面孔）的回忆能力。
Cognitive interview – A technique using context reinstatement, report everything, recall in different orders and change perspective to improve recall accuracy.
认知访谈 – 一种使用情境复置、报告一切、倒序回忆和变换视角等方法来提高回忆准确性的技术。
7. Classical Conditioning | 经典条件作用
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) – A stimulus that naturally triggers an unconditioned response without prior learning. E.g. food in Pavlov’s dogs.
无条件刺激 (UCS) – 无需学习就能自然引发无条件反应的刺激。如巴甫洛夫实验中的食物。
Unconditioned response (UCR) – The unlearned, automatic reaction to the UCS, like salivation.
无条件反应 (UCR) – 对无条件刺激产生的未学习的自动反应，如分泌唾液。
Neutral stimulus (NS) – A stimulus that initially produces no specific response. The bell before conditioning.
中性刺激 (NS) – 初始时不引起特定反应的刺激。如条件作用前的铃声。
Conditioned stimulus (CS) – The previously neutral stimulus that, after being paired with the UCS, begins to trigger a conditioned response.
条件刺激 (CS) – 原本中性的刺激，在与无条件刺激多次配对后，开始引发条件反应。
Conditioned response (CR) – The learned response to the CS, similar to the UCR. Salivation to the bell.
条件反应 (CR) – 对条件刺激产生的习得反应，与无条件反应相似。如听见铃声分泌唾液。
Extinction – When the CR disappears after the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS. The association weakens.
消退 – 条件刺激多次单独呈现而不伴随无条件刺激，条件反应逐渐减弱直至消失。
Spontaneous recovery – The sudden reappearance of an extinguished CR after a rest period.
自发恢复 – 已消退的条件反应在休息一段时间后又突然重新出现。
8. Operant Conditioning | 操作条件作用
Positive reinforcement – Adding a pleasant stimulus after a behaviour to increase its frequency. E.g. giving a sticker for completing homework.
正强化 – 行为后添加愉快刺激以增加该行为频率。如完成作业奖励贴纸。
Negative reinforcement – Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behaviour. E.g. taking a painkiller to remove a headache; not a punishment.
负强化 – 移除不愉快刺激以增加行为频率。如服药消除头痛，不是惩罚。
Punishment – Any consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behaviour. Positive punishment adds an aversive stimulus; negative punishment removes a pleasant one.
惩罚 – 降低行为发生概率的任何后果。正惩罚施加厌恶刺激，负惩罚移除愉快刺激。
Primary reinforcer – A reinforcer that satisfies a biological need, such as food, water, warmth. Remember ‘primary = primal need’.
初级强化物 – 满足生物需求的强化物，如食物、水、温暖。记作’初级=基本需求’。
Secondary reinforcer – A stimulus that becomes reinforcing through association with primary reinforcers, e.g. money, praise.
次级强化物 – 通过与初级强化物建立联系而获得强化作用的刺激，如金钱、表扬。
Schedules of reinforcement – Rules that determine when a behaviour is reinforced. Continuous reinforcement produces fast acquisition, partial schedules (fixed-ratio, variable-interval etc.) produce more resistant behaviours.
强化程式 – 决定何时给予强化的规则。连续强化习得快，部分强化（如固定比率、变动间隔）产生的行为更持久。
9. Conformity and Obedience | 从众与服从
Conformity – A change in behaviour or belief as a result of real or imagined group pressure. Asch’s line study demonstrated this.
从众 – 因真实或想象的群体压力而导致的行为或信念改变。阿施的线段实验证明了这一点。
Normative social influence – Conforming to be liked and accepted by the group; leads to public but not always private acceptance.
规范社会影响 – 为被群体喜欢和接纳而从众；导致公开接受，但不一定私下认同。
Informational social influence – Conforming because you believe others are correct, especially in ambiguous situations. Leads to both public and private acceptance.
信息社会影响 – 因相信他人正确而从众，尤其在模糊情境中。导致公开与私下都接受。
Obedience – Following direct commands from an authority figure. Milgram’s electric shock study showed alarming levels of obedience.
服从 – 听从权威人物的直接指令。米尔格拉姆的电击实验揭示了令人震惊的服从水平。
Agentic state – When a person sees themselves as an agent carrying out someone else’s orders and feels less responsibility for their actions.
代理状态 – 个体认为自己是执行他人命令的工具，对自己的行动责任感下降。
Legitimacy of authority – The perceived right of an authority figure to give orders, often due to their status or uniform. Milgram’s experimenter wore a lab coat.
权威的合法性 – 权威人物因身份或制服等因素被感知到的发号施令的正当性。米尔格拉姆的实验者穿白大褂以增强合法性。
10. Stereotypes and Prejudice | 刻板印象与偏见
Stereotype – A widely held, oversimplified belief about a group of people. It can be positive or negative but is rigid and often inaccurate.
刻板印象 – 对某一群体持有的广泛且过分简化的信念。可能是积极或消极的，但刻板僵化，且常不准确。
Prejudice – An unjustified, usually negative attitude toward an individual based solely on their group membership. It has cognitive, affective and behavioural components.
偏见 – 纯粹基于群体成员身份而对个体产生的不公正（常为负面）态度。包含认知、情感和行为成分。
Discrimination – The behavioural expression of prejudice: acting differently towards someone because of their group. ‘Discrimination = doing the difference’.
歧视 – 偏见的行为表现：因对方群体身份而区别对待。记’歧视=行为差异’。
Realistic conflict theory – Prejudice arises from competition for scarce resources. Sherif’s Robbers Cave experiment showed intergroup conflict when groups competed.
现实冲突理论 – 偏见源于对有限资源的竞争。谢里夫的罗伯斯洞穴实验显示，群体竞争时产生了群际冲突。
Social identity theory – Proposed by Tajfel; we divide the world into in-groups (‘us’) and out-groups (‘them’), and enhance our self-esteem by favouring the in-group and derogating the out-group.
社会认同理论 – 塔杰弗尔提出；我们将世界划分为内群体(‘我们’)和外群体(‘他们’)，并通过偏袒内群体、贬低外群体来提升自尊。
11. Core Research Concepts in Brief | 研究概念速览
Demand characteristics – Cues in an experiment that allow participants to guess the aim, leading them to change their behaviour, potentially confounding results.
要求特征 – 实验中的线索让被试者猜测实验目的，从而可能改变行为，混淆结果。
Investigator effects – When a researcher’s expectations, characteristics or actions influence participants’ behaviour, reducing objectivity. Standardised instructions and double-blind designs help control this.
实验者效应 – 研究者的期望、特征或行为影响被试者，降低客观性。使用标准化指导语和双盲设计可控制。
Pilot study – A small-scale trial run of an experiment to check procedures, materials and instructions before the real study.
预实验 – 正式实验前的小规模试运行，检查程序、材料和指导语。
Standardised procedures – Keeping the methodology exactly the same for all participants, so any difference in the DV can be attributed to the IV rather than procedural variation.
标准化程序 – 所有被试者接受完全相同的步骤，使得因变量的任何差异可归因于自变量而非程序差异。
12. Exam-Ready Memory Hacks | 考试速记技巧
Acronyms – Create acronyms for lists of terms. For the four lobes: ‘FTOP’ – Frontal, Temporal, Occipital, Parietal. For ethical issues: ‘PCDC’ – Protection, Consent, Deception, Confidentiality.
首字母缩略词 – 为术语列表编造缩略词。四个脑叶：’FTOP’ – 额叶、颞叶、枕叶、顶叶。伦理问题：’PCDC’ – 保护、同意、欺骗、保密。
Dual coding – Pair each term with a simple visual image. E.g. picture a dog salivating to a bell for classical conditioning, or a line of people placing a hand on each other’s shoulders for conformity.
双重编码 – 将每个术语与简单的视觉图像配对。比如想象一只狗听到铃声流口水的画面来记经典条件作用，或一群人把手搭在别人肩上的画面记从众。
Teach-back method – Explain the terms aloud to a friend or an imaginary class. Teaching forces you to organise information clearly and reveals gaps.
回教法 – 把术语大声讲给朋友或假想的班级听。教别人迫使我们清晰地组织信息并暴露知识漏洞。
Active recall with flashcards – Put the term on one side and the definition on the other. Test yourself regularly, mixing up the order to avoid rote learning.
闪卡主动回忆 – 一面写术语，另一面写定义。定期自测，打乱顺序，避免机械记忆。
Link to research studies – Attach each term to a key study. For example, ‘leading questions’ links to Loftus and Palmer (1974), ‘obedience’ to Milgram (1963). This deepens semantic processing.
结合研究案例 – 把每个术语与关键研究联系起来。如’诱导性问题’与 Loftus and Palmer (1974)，’服从’与 Milgram (1963)。这加深了语义加工。
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