📚 Year 13 WJEC Psychology: Key Terms Quick-Memory Guide | Year 13 WJEC 心理学：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering technical vocabulary is one of the biggest hurdles in A-level Psychology. WJEC’s Year 13 specification covers a huge range of concepts from biological rhythms to forensic profiling, and the examiners expect you to use precise terminology in your answers. This guide breaks down the most frequently tested terms into logical clusters, each with a simple memory hook so you can recall them under pressure. Read the English explanation first, then the matched Chinese version to reinforce your understanding.
掌握技术词汇是 A-level 心理学中最棘手的难题之一。WJEC 的 Year 13 教学大纲涵盖了从生物节律到法医侧写的庞大概念体系，而考官期望你能在答案中精确使用术语。本指南将最常考的关键术语分成逻辑集群，每一组都配有简单的记忆钩子，帮助你在考试压力下也能快速回忆。请先阅读英文解释，然后对照中文加深理解。
1. Research Methods Essentials | 研究方法核心术语
A solid grasp of research terminology helps you tackle part (a) and part (b) questions on any topic. Start with the basics: the independent variable (IV) is what the researcher manipulates, and the dependent variable (DV) is what is measured. An extraneous variable is any unwanted factor that could affect the DV, while a confounding variable is one that actually does vary systematically with the IV, ruining internal validity. Remember: ‘confounding’ means ‘confusing’ the results. Validity refers to whether a study measures what it intends to measure, and reliability is about consistency. Use the phrase ‘V for accuracy, R for repeatability’.
扎实的研究术语基础能帮助你应对任何主题的 (a) 和 (b) 部分题目。首先从基础入手：自变量（IV）是研究者操纵的变量，因变量（DV）是被测量的变量。额外变量是指任何可能影响因变量的不必要因素，而混淆变量则是那个与自变量一起系统变化、从而破坏内部效度的变量。记住：’confounding’ 意味着结果被 ‘弄混了’。效度指研究是否测量了它想要测量的东西，信度则关乎一致性。用口诀 ‘V 是准，R 是稳’ 来记忆。
A pilot study is a small-scale trial run to check procedures and improve the design. Demand characteristics are cues that reveal the aim of the study to participants, causing them to change their behaviour. Counterbalancing is a technique to control order effects in repeated measures designs – half the participants do condition A then B, half do B then A. Think ‘ABBA’ to recall the pattern. A null hypothesis states there will be no difference or relationship; the alternative hypothesis predicts one. When results are significant at the p ≤ 0.05 level, the probability of the result occurring by chance is 5% or less.
试点研究是小规模的试验运行，用于检验程序并改良设计。需求特征是指向参与者透露研究目的的线索，导致他们改变行为。平衡法是用于控制重复测量设计中的顺序效应——一半参与者先做条件 A 再做 B，另一半先做 B 再做 A。用 ‘ABBA’ 来记住这种模式。零假设陈述不存在差异或关系；备择假设则预测存在差异或关系。当结果在 p ≤ 0.05 水平上显著时，意味着结果纯属偶然的概率是 5% 或更低。
2. Social Influence: Obedience & Conformity | 社会影响：服从与从众
Obedience involves following a direct order from an authority figure, as shown by Milgram’s electric shock studies. The agentic state explains obedience as a shift from an autonomous state – the participant sees themselves as an agent carrying out someone else’s wishes. A legitimate authority figure is perceived to have the right to give orders, often due to uniform or status. The opposite is the autonomous state, where people take personal responsibility. Conformity is yielding to group pressure; it can be compliance (superficial, public agreement but private disagreement), identification (temporary change to fit a valued group), or internalisation (genuine, lasting change in private beliefs).
服从是遵守权威人物直接命令的行为，正如米尔格拉姆电击实验所展示的那样。代理人状态将服从解释为从自主状态的转变——参与者将自己视为执行他人意愿的代理人。合法权威人物被认为有权发号施令，通常是因为制服或地位。与之相对的是自主状态，人们会承担个人责任。从众是指屈从于群体压力；它可以是顺从（表面的、公开同意但私下不同意），认同（因重视某个群体而暂时改变），或内化（私下信念发生真实且持久的改变）。
Asch’s line study demonstrated normative social influence (NSI) – conforming to be liked or accepted – and informational social influence (ISI) – conforming because you believe the group is right. Think ‘N for need to belong, I for information’. Social impact theory proposes that influence is a function of strength (status), immediacy (closeness), and number (group size). Remember the acronym ‘SIN’: Strength, Immediacy, Number. Minority influence relies on consistency, commitment, and flexibility, eventually leading to the snowball effect where more people adopt the minority view.
阿希的线段研究展示了规范性社会影响（NSI）——为了被喜欢或接纳而从众，以及信息性社会影响（ISI）——因为你相信群体是对的而从众。用 ‘N 表示归属需求，I 表示信息’ 来区分。社会影响理论提出，影响力是强度（地位）、即时性（亲密度）和数量（群体大小）的函数。记住首字母缩写 ‘SIN’：强度、即时性、数量。少数派影响依赖于一致性、投入度和灵活性，最终引发雪球效应，让更多人接受少数派观点。
3. Memory: Models and Forgetting | 记忆：模型与遗忘
The multi-store model (Atkinson & Shiffrin) describes three separate stores: sensory register, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). Information flows through attention and rehearsal. The capacity of STM is 7±2 items, and its duration is about 18-30 seconds without rehearsal. Coding in STM is mainly acoustic, while LTM is semantic. A key criticism is that the model is too linear and ignores different types of LTM, such as episodic (personal events), semantic (facts), and procedural (skills).
多存储模型（阿特金森和谢夫林）描述了三个独立的存储库：感觉登记器、短时记忆（STM）和长时记忆（LTM）。信息通过注意和复述流动。STM 的容量是 7±2 个项目，没有复述的情况下持续时间约 18-30 秒。STM 的编码主要是声学的，而 LTM 是语义的。一个关键批评是该模型过于线性化，忽略了不同类型的 LTM，如情景记忆（个人事件）、语义记忆（事实）和程序记忆（技能）。
The working memory model (Baddeley & Hitch) includes the central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and episodic buffer. The phonological loop has two parts: the phonological store (inner ear) and the articulatory process (inner voice). Use ‘Please, Please, Listen Very Carefully’ to remember the four components (loop, sketchpad, executive, buffer). For interference theory in forgetting, proactive interference is when old learning disrupts new – ‘Proactive = Past messing up Present’. Retroactive interference is when new learning disrupts old – ‘Retroactive = Recent ruins Remote’. Retrieval failure occurs when cues are absent; the encoding specificity principle states that memory is best when the context at recall matches the context at encoding.
工作记忆模型（巴德利和希奇）包含中央执行器、语音环路、视空间画板和情景缓冲器。语音环路有两部分：语音存储（内耳）和发音过程（内声）。用 ‘Please, Please, Listen Very Carefully’ 来记住四个成分（loop, sketchpad, executive, buffer）。在遗忘的干扰理论中，前摄干扰是旧学习干扰新学习——’Proactive = 过去扰乱现在’。倒摄干扰是新学习干扰旧学习——’Retroactive = 最近破坏最久’。提取失败发生在缺乏线索时；编码特异性原则指出，当回忆时的情境与编码时的情境相匹配时，记忆效果最佳。
4. Attachment: Explanations and Types | 依恋：解释与类型
Attachment is a strong emotional bond between an infant and caregiver, and it develops through reciprocal interaction. Learning theory explains attachment via classical conditioning (caregiver becomes associated with food) and operant conditioning (feeding reinforces crying-to-get-care behaviour). Bowlby’s monotropic theory argues that attachment is innate, one primary caregiver is most important, and this bond provides an internal working model for future relationships. The critical period is around two years; if attachment doesn’t form by then, social and intellectual development may be harmed. Use ‘Monotropy = one main bond’.
依恋是婴儿与照料者之间的强烈情感纽带，通过相互作用的互动过程发展起来。学习理论通过经典条件作用（照料者与食物相关联）和操作性条件作用（喂食强化了哭闹求照顾的行为）来解释依恋。鲍尔比的单链理论认为依恋是与生俱来的，一位主要照料者最重要，这种纽带为未来的关系提供了一个内部工作模型。关键期大约是两年；如果在那之前没有形成依恋，社交和智力发展可能会受到损害。用 ‘Monotropy = 一个主要纽带’ 来记忆。
Ainsworth’s Strange Situation identified three main attachment types: secure (Type B), insecure-avoidant (Type A), and insecure-resistant (Type C). Securely attached infants explore freely, show distress at separation, and seek comfort on reunion. Avoidant infants show little distress upon separation and ignore the caregiver at reunion. Resistant infants are clingy yet resist comfort. The caregiver sensitivity hypothesis states that sensitive responsiveness predicts secure attachment. There are also cultural variations: for example, Japanese infants show more resistant behaviour due to close constant care, highlighting that the Strange Situation may be culturally biased.
安斯沃斯的陌生情境实验识别出三种主要依恋类型：安全型（B 型）、不安全-回避型（A 型）和不安全-抗拒型（C 型）。安全型依恋的婴儿自由探索，分离时表现痛苦，重聚时寻求安慰。回避型婴儿在分离时很少表现出痛苦，重聚时忽略照料者。抗拒型婴儿既粘人又抗拒安慰。照料者敏感度假说指出，敏感的回应性能够预测安全型依恋。此外还存在文化差异：例如，日本婴儿由于长期紧密的照料而表现出更多的抗拒行为，这突显了陌生情境可能存在文化偏见。
5. Biopsychology: Neurons and Synapses | 生物心理学：神经元与突触
Neurons are the basic building blocks of the nervous system. The three main types are sensory neurons (carry info from receptors to CNS), motor neurons (carry signals from CNS to effectors like muscles), and relay neurons (connect sensory to motor within the CNS). A neuron at rest is negatively charged inside relative to outside (–70mV), known as the resting potential. When stimulated, sodium channels open and sodium ions (Na⁺) rush in, causing depolarisation. If the threshold (–55mV) is reached, an action potential fires down the axon – this is an all-or-nothing response. Remember ‘Sodium in, spike out’. After the peak, potassium ions (K⁺) flow out, restoring the resting potential (repolarisation), and the sodium-potassium pump restores ion balance.
神经元是神经系统的基本构造单元。三种主要类型是感觉神经元（将信息从感受器传到中枢神经系统）、运动神经元（将信号从中枢神经系统传到肌肉等效应器）和联络神经元（在中枢神经系统内连接感觉和运动）。静息状态的神经元内部相对于外部带负电荷（-70mV），这被称为静息电位。当受到刺激时，钠通道打开，钠离子（Na⁺）涌入，导致去极化。如果达到阈电位（-55mV），动作电位便沿着轴突发放——这是一种全或无的反应。记住 ‘钠离子进，锋电位出’。达到峰值后，钾离子（K⁺）外流，恢复静息电位（复极化），随后钠钾泵恢复离子平衡。
Synaptic transmission involves the release of neurotransmitters from presynaptic vesicles into the synaptic gap. Neurotransmitters bind to receptor sites on the postsynaptic membrane like a key in a lock. Excitatory neurotransmitters (e.g., glutamate) make the postsynaptic neuron more likely to fire; inhibitory ones (e.g., GABA) make it less likely. Summation is the process of adding up inputs: temporal summation is repeated stimuli from a single neuron in quick succession; spatial summation is simultaneous stimuli from multiple neurons. Reuptake is the process where excess neurotransmitter is taken back up by the presynaptic neuron. Drugs like SSRIs for depression block reuptake of serotonin, increasing its availability in the synapse.
突触传递涉及神经递质从前突触小泡释放到突触间隙中。神经递质像钥匙开锁一样与后突触膜上的受体位点结合。兴奋性神经递质（如谷氨酸）使后突触神经元更有可能发放；抑制性神经递质（如 GABA）则降低发放的可能性。总和是将输入信号累加的过程：时间性总和是来自单个神经元的连续快速刺激；空间性总和是来自多个神经元的同步刺激。再摄取是指多余的神经递质被前突触神经元重新收回的过程。治疗抑郁症的药物（如 SSRIs）会阻断血清素的再摄取，从而增加其在突触中的可用量。
6. Individual Differences: Defining Abnormality | 个体差异：异常的定义
Four main definitions of abnormality appear in the WJEC specification. Statistical infrequency defines abnormality as behaviour that is numerically rare, e.g., IQ below 70. Deviation from social norms defines behaviour that violates accepted societal standards – but norms vary between cultures and over time. Failure to function adequately (Rosenhan & Seligman) identifies abnormality through an inability to cope with everyday life; the seven features include unpredictability, personal distress, and observer discomfort. Think ‘Failing to Function = 7 Ds’ (distress, dysfunction, deviance, danger, discomfort, duration, discrimination). Deviation from ideal mental health (Jahoda) lists criteria for positive mental health, such as self-acceptance, autonomy, and accurate perception of reality; absence of these indicates abnormality.
WJEC 教学大纲中出现了四种主要的异常定义。统计罕见度将行为在数量上极为少见定义为异常，例如 IQ 低于 70。社会规范偏离将违反社会认可标准的行为定义为异常——但规范在不同文化之间以及随着时间而变化。功能失调（罗森汉和塞利格曼）通过无法应对日常生活来识别异常；七个特征包括不可预测性、个人痛苦和观察者不适等。用 ‘Failing to Function = 7 个 D’（distress, dysfunction, deviance, danger, discomfort, duration, discrimination）来记忆。理想心理健康偏离（雅霍达）列出了积极心理健康的标准，如自我接纳、自主性和对现实的准确知觉；缺少这些就表示异常。
The DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual) is the main classification system used by clinicians. It takes a categorical approach, listing specific symptoms and criteria for each disorder. A key strength is its reliability, but it has been criticised for cultural bias and over-medicalisation. The Rosenhan (1973) study ‘Being sane in insane places’ raised serious questions about validity. In contrast, the ICD-11 is used more in Europe. When discussing schizophrenia or depression, always link definitions back to these systems and consider whether abnormality is a social construction.
DSM-5（精神障碍诊断与统计手册）是临床医生使用的主要分类体系。它采用分类学方法，列出每种障碍的具体症状和标准。一个关键优点是其信度，但它也因文化偏见和过度医学化而受到批评。罗森汉（1973）的 ‘假病人’ 研究 ‘精神正常的人置身于精神病院’ 对诊断效度提出了严重质疑。相比之下，ICD-11 在欧洲使用更多。在讨论精神分裂症或抑郁症时，始终要将定义与这些体系联系起来，并思考异常是否是一种社会建构。
7. Schizophrenia: Symptoms and Explanations | 精神分裂症：症状与解释
Schizophrenia is a severe mental disorder affecting about 1% of the population, characterised by a loss of contact with reality. Symptoms are divided into positive (excess of normal functions) and negative (diminution of normal functions). Positive symptoms include hallucinations (false perceptions, usually auditory) and delusions (firmly held false beliefs, e.g., of persecution or grandeur). Negative symptoms include avolition (lack of motivation) and speech poverty (reduced speech content). Remember ‘Positive = added, Negative = taken away’. The DSM-5 requires two or more symptoms for a diagnosis, and at least one must be a positive symptom.
精神分裂症是一种严重的精神障碍，影响约 1% 的人口，其特点是丧失现实感。症状分为阳性症状（正常功能的过度）和阴性症状（正常功能的减弱）。阳性症状包括幻觉（虚假的知觉，通常是听觉性的）和妄想（顽固坚持的虚假信念，如被害妄想或夸大妄想）。阴性症状包括意志减退（缺乏动机）和言语贫乏（言语内容减少）。记住 ‘阳性 = 加出来的，阴性 = 减掉的’。DSM-5 要求至少有两种症状才能做出诊断，并且其中至少一种必须是阳性症状。
The dopamine hypothesis suggests that schizophrenia results from overactivity of dopamine pathways, especially in the mesolimbic pathway. Evidence comes from amphetamines (which increase dopamine and can trigger psychotic symptoms) and from antipsychotic drugs that block D2 receptors. However, PET scans have not always shown consistent hyperactivity, and negative symptoms seem linked to normal or low dopamine in the prefrontal cortex. An updated version highlights both hyperdopaminergia in subcortical areas and hypodopaminergia in the cortex. Neural correlates include enlarged ventricles (indicating loss of brain tissue) and reduced activity in the prefrontal cortex during cognitive tasks. Family, twin, and adoption studies also support a strong genetic component; the Gottesman study found a 48% concordance rate for MZ twins. The diathesis-stress model integrates biology and environment: a genetic vulnerability (diathesis) combined with environmental stressors (e.g., childhood trauma or cannabis use) triggers the disorder.
多巴胺假说认为精神分裂症源于多巴胺通路的过度活动，尤其是在中脑边缘通路中。证据来源于苯丙胺（它能增加多巴胺并能引发精神病症状）和阻断 D2 受体的抗精神病药物。然而，PET 扫描并不总是显示一致的高活性，而且阴性症状似乎与前额叶皮质中多巴胺水平正常或偏低有关。一个更新版本强调了皮层下区域的多巴胺功能亢进和皮层内的多巴胺功能低下。神经相关物包括脑室扩大（表明脑组织减少）和认知任务期间前额叶皮质活动降低。家族、双生子和收养研究也支持强烈的遗传成分；戈特斯曼的研究发现同卵双生子的共病一致率为 48%。素质-压力模型将生物因素与环境因素整合起来：一种遗传易感性（素质）与环境应激源（如童年创伤或大麻使用）结合起来，便会触发疾病。
8. Addictive Behaviours: Risk Factors | 成瘾行为：风险因素
Addiction is defined by a loss of control over substance use or behaviour, despite harmful consequences. Tolerance occurs when increasing amounts are needed to achieve the same effect; withdrawal is the set of unpleasant symptoms when the substance is stopped. Griffiths’ six components of addiction – salience, mood modification, tolerance, withdrawal, conflict, and relapse – help assess whether a behaviour like gambling qualifies as an addiction. Remember ‘Salty Monkeys Try Watching Clumsy Raccoons’ (Salience, Mood modification, Tolerance, Withdrawal, Conflict, Relapse).
成瘾被定义为尽管有有害后果，依然对物质使用或行为失去控制。耐受性是指需要逐渐增加剂量才能达到同样的效果；戒断是指停止使用该物质时出现的一系列不愉快症状。格里菲斯的成瘾六大成分——突出性、情绪调节、耐受性、戒断、冲突和复发——有助于评估像赌博这样的行为是否符合成瘾标准。用 ‘Salty Monkeys Try Watching Clumsy Raccoons’（突出性、情绪调节、耐受性、戒断、冲突、复发）来记忆。
Risk factors for addiction span biological, psychological, and social influences. Genetic predisposition explains around 30-60% of variance in substance misuse; the A1 variant of the DRD2 gene is linked to lower dopamine receptor availability, making individuals seek substances for stimulation. Personality traits like high neuroticism and low agreeableness also increase risk. Peers are a strong social risk factor during adolescence when the peer pressure to try substances peaks. The neurochemical basis involves the mesolimbic dopamine pathway, where drugs trigger a large dopamine surge, reinforcing the behaviour. Cognitive biases such as attentional bias (addicts automatically notice drug-related cues) and outcome expectancies (‘drinking makes me sociable’) also maintain addiction. The hedonic treadmill theory explains that as tolerance builds, baseline mood dips, pushing the individual back to the substance just to feel normal.
成瘾的风险因素涵盖生物、心理和社会影响。遗传易感性解释了物质滥用中约 30-60% 的差异；DRD2 基因的 A1 变体与多巴胺受体可获得性较低有关，导致个体寻求物质以获得刺激。人格特质如高神经质和低宜人性也会增加风险。同伴是青少年时期一个强大的社会风险因素，此时尝试物质的同伴压力达到顶峰。神经化学基础涉及中脑边缘多巴胺通路，药物在此触发大量的多巴胺激增，对行为进行强化。认知偏差如注意偏向（成瘾者会自动注意到与药物相关的线索）和结果预期（’喝酒让我善于社交’）也维持着成瘾。享乐水车理论解释，随着耐受性的建立，基线情绪下降，驱使个体重新回去使用物质，仅仅为了感觉正常。
9. Forensic Psychology: Offender Profiling | 法证心理学：罪犯侧写
Forensic psychology applies psychological knowledge to the criminal justice system. The top-down approach to profiling, as used by the FBI, starts with a typology of organised vs disorganised offenders. Organised offenders plan offences, hide evidence, and have above-average IQ; disorganised offenders act impulsively, leave evidence, and often live alone. While intuitive, the approach has been criticised for having a small, unsystematic sample and assuming offenders are either one or the other. The bottom-up approach, like investigative psychology (Canter), uses statistical analysis of crime scene data to infer characteristics. Canter’s Five Factor Model includes interpersonal coherence, forensic awareness, and spatial location. Geographical profiling (Rossmo) analyses the locations of a connected series of crimes to estimate the offender’s likely base of operations (least effort principle). Remember ‘Bottom-up = data-driven, Top-down = type-driven’.
法证心理学将心理学知识应用于刑事司法系统。自上而下的侧写方法，由 FBI 使用，从有组织型与无组织型犯罪者的分类开始。有组织型犯罪者会预先计划犯罪、隐藏证据，且智商高于平均水平；无组织型犯罪者则冲动行事，遗留证据，通常独居。尽管直觉性强，但这种方法因样本小且不系统、以及假设犯罪者非此即彼而受到批评。自下而上法，如侦查心理学（坎特），则利用犯罪现场数据的统计分析来推断特征。坎特的五因素模型包括人际一致性、法证意识和空间区位。地理侧写（罗斯莫）分析一系列相关犯罪的地点，从而推断犯罪者最有可能的行动基地（最省力原则）。记住 ‘自下而上 = 数据驱动，自上而下 = 类型驱动’。
Other key forensic terms include the halo effect (physical attractiveness influences juror judgement), the primacy-recency effect (jurors better remember evidence presented first and last), and the weapon focus effect (eyewitnesses focus on weapon rather than face). In custodial sentencing, recidivism is the rate of re-offending; cognitive-behavioural programmes like anger management aim to reduce this. Token economy programmes in prisons operate on operant conditioning, giving tokens for prosocial behaviour that can be exchanged for rewards. However, these programmes may not generalise post-release.
其他关键的法证术语包括晕轮效应（外貌吸引力影响陪审员判断）、首因-近因效应（陪审员对最先和最后呈现的证据记得更牢）、以及武器聚焦效应（目击者注意力集中在武器而非面孔上）。在监禁量刑中，再犯率就是重犯率；像愤怒管理这样的认知行为项目旨在降低这一比率。监狱里的代币经济方案基于操作性条件作用，对亲社会行为给予代币，代币可兑换为奖励。然而，这些方案在释放后可能无法推广。
10. Stress: Biological and Psychological Responses | 压力：生理与心理反应
Stress is a pattern of responses an individual makes to a perceived threat. The sympathomedullary (SAM) pathway is activated in acute stress: the hypothalamus activates the sympathetic nervous system, stimulating the adrenal medulla to release adrenaline and noradrenaline. This triggers the fight-or-flight response – increased heart rate, dilated pupils, suppressed digestion. The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis handles chronic stress. The hypothalamus releases CRH, which stimulates the pituitary to secrete ACTH. ACTH travels to the adrenal cortex, releasing cortisol. Cortisol provides sustained energy but can damage immune function and memory if chronically elevated. Use ‘SAM = short-term shock, HPA = long haul’.
压力是个体对所感知到的威胁做出的一种反应模式。交感-肾上腺-髓质（SAM）通路在急性压力中激活：下丘脑激活交感神经系统，刺激肾上腺髓质释放肾上腺素和去甲肾上腺素。这触发了战斗或逃跑反应——心率加快、瞳孔放大、消化受抑制。下丘脑-垂体-肾上腺（HPA）轴处理慢性压力。下丘脑释放 CRH，刺激垂体分泌 ACTH。ACTH 经血液循环到达肾上腺皮质，释放皮质醇。皮质醇提供持续能量，但如果长期升高，会损害免疫功能和记忆。用 ‘SAM = 短效冲击，HPA = 长程搬运’ 来记忆。
Transactional model of stress (Lazarus) views stress as an imbalance between perceived demands and perceived coping resources. Primary appraisal evaluates the threat itself; secondary appraisal evaluates one’s ability to cope. The same event can be a challenge for one person but a threat for another. Problem-focused coping targets the stressor directly; emotion-focused coping regulates emotional responses, such as through relaxation or denial. Hardiness (Kobasa) includes commitment, control, and challenge as personality traits that buffer stress. Remember ‘Triple C for Hardiness: Commitment, Control, Challenge’. Type A personality, with hostility as a core component, is linked to higher cardiovascular reactivity.
压力的交互作用模型（拉扎勒斯）将压力视为感知到的要求和感知到的应对资源之间的失衡。初级评价评估威胁本身；次级评价评估个人的应对能力。同一事件对某人而言可能是挑战，对另一人则是威胁。问题聚焦应对直接针对压力源；情绪聚焦应对则调节情绪反应，比如通过放松或否认。坚韧性人格（科巴萨）包含承诺、控制力和挑战性这三种缓冲压力的人格特质。用 ‘硬汉三 C：承诺、控制、挑战’ 来记忆。A 型人格，其核心成分是敌意，它与较高的心血管反应性有关。
11. Research Design and Ethics | 研究设计与伦理
Experimental designs include independent groups (different participants in each condition), repeated measures (same participants in all conditions), and matched pairs (different but matched participants). Repeated measures eliminate participant variables but suffer order effects; counterbalancing helps control these. Independent groups avoid order effects but are subject to participant individual differences. Matched pairs reduce individual differences but matching is time-consuming. Use ‘Indie, Repeat, Match’ to recall them. A natural experiment occurs when the IV is naturally occurring and cannot be manipulated (e.g., comparing orphans vs non-orphans). A quasi-experiment uses a naturally existing characteristic like gender or personality. Both lack full control, so causal conclusions are weaker.
实验设计包括独立组设计（不同条件使用不同参与者）、重复测量设计（所有条件使用相同参与者）和配对组设计（不同但经过匹配的参与者）。重复测量消除了参与者变量的影响，但会受到顺序效应的干扰；平衡法有助于控制这一点。独立组设计避免了顺序效应，但受到参与者个体差异的影响。配对组设计减少了个体差异，但匹配过程耗时。用 ‘Indie, Repeat, Match’ 来记。自然实验是指自变量是自然发生且无法操纵的（例如比较孤儿与非孤儿）。准实验使用一个自然存在的特征，如性别或人格。这两种实验都缺乏完全控制，因此因果结论较弱。
Ethical guidelines protect participants from harm. The four key principles are respect, competence, responsibility, and integrity (BPS code). In informed consent, participants should know the aims and procedures; if deception is necessary, debriefing must follow. Confidentiality means data must be kept anonymous. The right to withdraw allows participants to leave at any time without penalty. Protection from harm requires that physical and psychological risks are avoided. When studying sensitive topics, researchers must weigh the potential benefits against the risks (cost-benefit analysis). Milgram’s study is a classic example of ethical violation: deception, lack of right to withdraw, and psychological distress. Use the mnemonic ‘DICC’: Deception, Informed consent, Confidentiality, Competence to recall the main concerns.
伦理准则保护参与者免受伤害。四项关键原则是尊重、胜任、责任和诚信（BPS 准则）。在知情同意中，参与者应知晓目的和程序；如果有必要欺骗，随后必须进行事后解释。保密性意味着数据必须保持匿名。退出权利允许参与者随时退出而不受惩罚。伤害防护要求避免身体和心理风险。当研究敏感课题时，研究者必须权衡潜在收益与风险（成本-效益分析）。米尔格拉姆的研究就是一个违反伦理的经典例子：欺骗、缺乏退出权利以及心理痛苦。用助记符 ‘DICC’：欺骗、知情同意、保密性、胜任，来回忆主要关注点。
12. Data Analysis and Statistical Terms | 数据分析与统计术语
Descriptive statistics summarise data: measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode) and measures of dispersion (range, variance, standard deviation). Standard deviation shows how spread out scores are around the mean; a larger SD means greater variability. In a normal distribution, 68% of scores lie within ±1 SD of the mean. A skewed distribution occurs when scores pile up on one end; a positive skew has a tail to the right (hard test), and a negative skew has a tail to the left (easy test). Remember ‘Positive skew = poor performers tail’.
描述性统计用于总结数据：集中趋势的度量（平均数、中位数、众数）和离散程度的度量（全距、方差、标准差）。标准差表示分数围绕平均数的分散程度；标准差越大，变异性越大。在正态分布中，68% 的分数落在平均数 ±1 个标准差之内。偏态分布是指分数堆积在一端的情况；正偏态时尾巴在右边（试题较难），负偏态时尾巴在左边（试题较易）。记住 ‘正偏 = 差生拖出长尾巴’。
Inferential statistics help decide whether results are significant. A parametric test like Pearson’s r or the unrelated t-test requires interval data and normal distribution; non-parametric tests like Spearman’s rho or Mann-Whitney U are used for ordinal data or when assumptions are violated. The critical value is the value a test statistic must exceed to be significant at a given p-level. A Type I error is a false positive – claiming a difference when there isn’t one (remember ‘I for Imagining a result’). A Type II error is a false negative – missing a real difference (‘II for Inspection failure’). The p-value is the probability of obtaining test results at least as extreme as the observed results, assuming the null hypothesis is true. A significance level of p ≤ 0.05 is the standard in psychology.
推论统计帮助决定结果是否显著。参数检验如皮尔逊 r 或独立 t 检验要求等距数据和正态分布；非参数检验如斯皮尔曼的 rho 或曼-惠特尼 U 用于顺序数据或在假设被违反时使用。临界值是指一个检验统计量在给定 p 值水平上达到显著时所必须超过的数值。第一类错误是假阳性——声称存在差异而实际没有（用 ‘I 是凭空想象’ 来记）。第二类错误是假阴性——错过了真实的差异（’II 是检验失败’）。p 值是指在零假设为真的情况下，获得至少像观察到的结果那样极端的结果的概率。p ≤ 0.05 的显著水平是心理学中的标准。
Published by TutorHao | Psychology Revision Series | aleveler.com
更多咨询请联系16621398022（同微信）
屏轩国际教育cambridge primary/secondary checkpoint, cat4, ukiset,ukcat,igcse,alevel,PAT,STEP,MAT, ibdp,ap,ssat,sat,sat2课程辅导，国外大学本科硕士研究生博士课程论文辅导